الفرق بين النسختين بتاع: «United Kingdom»
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ص 1 تعديل من en:United_Kingdom |
تعديل وسمين: تحويلة جديدة تراجع يدوي |
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| سطر 1: | سطر 1: | ||
#تحويل [[المملكه المتحده]] |
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{{Short description|Country in Northwestern Europe}} |
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{{Redirect|UK|other uses|United Kingdom (disambiguation)|and|UK (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Pp-semi-indef}} |
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{{Use British English|date=April 2012}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} |
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{{Infobox country |
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| common_name = United Kingdom |
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| linking_name = the United Kingdom<!--Note: "the" required here as this entry used to create wikilinks--> |
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| conventional_long_name = United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |
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| image_flag = Flag of the United Kingdom (1-2).svg |
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| alt_flag = A flag composed of a red cross edged in white and superimposed on a red saltire, also edged in white, superimposed on a white saltire on a blue background |
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| image_coat = |
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| other_symbol = [[File:Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (both variants).svg|250px]]<br>Used in relation to Scotland (right) and elsewhere (left) |
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| other_symbol_type = [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|Coats of arms]]: |
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| national_anthem = "[[God Save the King]]"{{Efn|There is no authorised version of the national anthem as the words are a matter of tradition; only the first verse is usually sung.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2016 |title=National Anthem |url= https://www.royal.uk/national-anthem |access-date=4 June 2016 |publisher=The Royal Family |last1=Berry |first1=Ciara }}</ref> No statute has been enacted designating "God Save the King" as the official anthem. In the English tradition, such laws are not necessary; [[proclamation]] and usage are sufficient to make it the national anthem. "God Save the King" also serves as the [[Honors music|Royal anthem]] for certain [[Commonwealth realms]]. The words ''King, he, him, his'', used at present, are replaced by ''Queen, she, her'' when the monarch is female.}}<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:United_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.ogg|God Save the King / Queen <!-- Do not change file name due to computer error without ensuring that the file is playable. -->]]</div> |
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| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Europe-UK (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Europe-UK.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|[[File:Territorial waters - United Kingdom.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show overseas territories,<br /> [[Crown Dependencies]] and the [[exclusive economic zone of the United Kingdom|exclusive economic zones]]|default=1}} |
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| map_caption = {{Map caption|countryprefix=the|location_color=dark green|region=Europe|region_color=dark grey}} |
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| capital = [[London]] |
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| coordinates = {{Coord|51|30|N|0|7|W|type:city}} |
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| largest_city = capital |
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| languages_type = Official language<br /> {{Nobold|and national language}} |
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| languages = {{indented plainlist| |
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* [[English language|English]] (''[[de facto]]'')<!--Note: Just English, don't add "British English".--> |
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}} |
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| languages2_type = Regional and minority languages{{Efn|Scots, Ulster Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic and Irish are classed as [[Regional language|regional]] or [[Minority language|minority]] languages under the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].<ref name="reglang">{{Cite web |title=List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |access-date=12 December 2013 |publisher=[[Council of Europe]] |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212175720/http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These include defined obligations to promote those languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welsh language on GOV.UK – Content design: planning, writing and managing content – Guidance |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/content-design/welsh-language-on-gov-uk |access-date=3 August 2018 |website=gov.uk}}; {{Cite news |title=Welsh language scheme |work=GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-transport/about/welsh-language-scheme |access-date=3 August 2018}}; {{Cite news |title=Welsh language scheme |work=GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/home-office/about/welsh-language-scheme |access-date=3 August 2018}}</ref> See also [[Languages of the United Kingdom]]. Welsh has limited ''[[de jure]]'' official status in Wales, as well as in the provision of national government services provided for Wales.}} |
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| languages2 = {{Hlist |
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<!--Anglo--> |
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|[[Scots language|Scots]] |
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|[[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] |
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<!--Brittonic--> |
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|[[Welsh language|Welsh]] |
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|[[Cornish language|Cornish]] |
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<!--Goidelic--> |
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|[[Scottish Gaelic]]<!--Keep "Scottish Gaelic"; people will find "Gaelic" confusing, as the Irish language is also commonly called "Gaelic"--> |
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|[[Irish language|Irish]] |
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|[[British Sign Language]] |
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}} |
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| ethnic_groups = {{Unbulleted list|item_style=white-space:nowrap; |
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|87.1% [[White people in the United Kingdom|White]] |
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|7.0% [[British Asian|Asian]] |
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|3.0% [[Black British|Black]] |
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|2.0% [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]] |
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|0.9% other |
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}} |
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| ethnic_groups_year = [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011]] |
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| demonym = {{Hlist|[[British people|British]]|Briton|Brit (colloquial)}} |
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| membership = {{Plainlist| |
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* [[England]] |
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* [[Scotland]] |
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* [[Wales]] |
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* [[Northern Ireland]]}} |
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| membership_type = [[Countries of the United Kingdom|Constituent countries]] |
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| government_type = Unitary{{Efn|Although the United Kingdom has traditionally been seen as a [[unitary state]], an alternative description of the UK as a "union state", put forward by, among others, [[Vernon Bogdanor]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bradbury |first=Jonathan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QWEAAAQBAJ&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA19 |title=Constitutional Policy and Territorial Politics in the UK: Volume 1: Union and Devolution 1997–2012 |date=2021 |publisher=Policy Press |isbn=978-1-5292-0588-6 |pages=19–20}}</ref> has become increasingly influential since the adoption of devolution in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leith |first=Murray Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeBvAAAAQBAJ&q=Uk+%2522unitary+state%2522&pg=PA39 |title=Political Discourse and National Identity in Scotland |date=2012 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-8862-3 |page=39}}</ref> A union state is considered to differ from a unitary state in that while it maintains a central authority it also recognises the authority of historic rights and infrastructures of its component parts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gagnon |first1=Alain-G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0ahE2fTxS0C&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA47 |title=Multinational Democracies |last2=Tully |first2=James |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80473-8 |page=47}}; {{Cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom: Practice and Principles |date=1998 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1-901362-84-8 |editor-last=Beatson |editor-first=Jack |location=Oxford |page=18 |chapter=Devolution: the Constitutional Aspects |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YEEgDsCYmbQC&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA18}}</ref>}} [[Constitutional monarchy#England, Scotland and the United Kingdom|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] |
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| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarch]] |
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| leader_name1 = [[Charles III]] |
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| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] |
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| leader_name2 = [[Rishi Sunak]] |
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| legislature = [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] |
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| upper_house = [[House of Lords]] |
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| lower_house = [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] |
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| sovereignty_type = [[History of the formation of the United Kingdom|Formation]] |
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| established_event1 = [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|Laws in Wales Acts]] |
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| established_date1 = 1535 and 1542 |
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| established_event2 = [[Union of the Crowns]] |
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| established_date2 = 24 March 1603 |
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| established_event3 = [[Treaty of Union]] |
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| established_date3 = 22 July 1706 |
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| established_event4 = [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union of England and Scotland]] |
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| established_date4 = 1 May 1707 |
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| established_event5 = [[Acts of Union 1800|Acts of Union of Great Britain and Ireland]] |
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| established_date5 = 1 January 1801 |
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| established_event6 = [[Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922|Irish Free State Constitution Act]] |
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| established_date6 = 5 December 1922 |
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| area_km2 = 243610 |
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| area_footnote = <ref>{{Cite report |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012/Table03.pdf |title=Demographic Yearbook – Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=9 August 2015 |year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/#geography|title=United Kingdom|date=27 February 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=24 February 2023|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom#geography|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=United Kingdom country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18023389 |website=BBC News |access-date=27 January 2021 |date=24 February 2020}}</ref> |
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| area_rank = 78th |
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| area_sq_mi = 93628 |
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| percent_water = 1.51 (2015)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surface water and surface water change |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER# |access-date=11 October 2021 |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)}}</ref> |
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| population_estimate = {{DecreaseNeutral}} 66,971,395<ref>{{cite web |title=Population, total – United Kingdom |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=GB |website=World Bank Open Data |access-date=18 September 2023}}</ref> |
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| population_estimate_year = 2022 |
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| population_estimate_rank = 22nd |
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| population_census = 63,182,178<ref>{{Cite web |title=2011 UK censuses |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/census/2011/uk-census/index.html |access-date=17 December 2012 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> |
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| population_census_year = 2011 |
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| population_census_rank = 22nd |
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| population_density_km2 = 270.7 |
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| population_density_sq_mi = 701.2 |
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| population_density_rank = 50th |
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| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $3.872 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.UK">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=112,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (UK) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=October 10, 2023 |access-date=October 10, 2023}}</ref> |
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| GDP_PPP_year = 2023 |
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| GDP_PPP_rank = 9th |
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| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $56,836<ref name="IMFWEO.UK" /> |
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| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 30th |
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| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $3.332 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.UK" /> |
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| GDP_nominal_year = 2023 |
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| GDP_nominal_rank = 6th |
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| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $48,913<ref name="IMFWEO.UK" /> |
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| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 23rd |
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| Gini = 35.5 |
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| Gini_year = 2020 |
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| Gini_change = decrease |
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| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Inequality – Income inequality |url=https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=us.oecd.org |publisher=[[OECD]]}}</ref> |
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| HDI = 0.929<!--number only--> |
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| HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year.--> |
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| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> |
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| HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=8 September 2022 |title=Human Development Report 2021/2022 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref> |
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| HDI_rank = 18th |
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| currency = [[Pound sterling]]{{Efn|Some of the devolved countries, Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories issue their own sterling banknotes or currencies, or use another nation's currency. See [[List of British currencies]] for more information.}} |
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| currency_code = GBP |
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| utc_offset = +0 |
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| time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time]], [[Western European Time|WET]] |
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| utc_offset_DST = +1 |
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| time_zone_DST = [[British Summer Time]], [[Western European Summer Time|WEST]] |
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| DST_note = {{Efn|Also observed by the [[Crown Dependencies]], and in the two British Overseas Territories of [[Gibraltar]] and [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]] (though in the latter, without daylight saving time). For further information, see [[Time in the United Kingdom#British territories]].}} |
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| date_format = {{plainlist| |
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* {{Abbr|dd|day}}/{{Abbr|mm|month}}/{{Abbr|yyyy|year}} |
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* {{Abbr|yyyy|year}}-{{Abbr|mm|month}}-{{Abbr|dd|day}} ([[Anno Domini|AD]]) |
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}} |
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| drives_on = left{{Efn|Except two overseas territories: [[Gibraltar]] and the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]}} |
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| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom|+44]]{{Efn|[[Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom#Telephone numbers in Overseas Territories|Excludes most overseas territories]]}} |
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| cctld = [[.uk]]{{Efn|The [[.gb]] domain is also reserved for the UK, but has been little used.}} |
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}} |
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The '''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''', commonly known as the '''United Kingdom''' ('''UK''') or '''Britain''',{{Efn|Usage is mixed. The ''[https://www.theguardian.com/guardian-observer-style-guide-u Guardian]'' and ''[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/style-book/places-and-people Telegraph]'' use Britain as a synonym for the United Kingdom. Some prefer to use Britain as shorthand for [[Great Britain]]. The British [[Cabinet Office]]'s [[Government Digital Service]] [https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z-of-gov-uk-style#great-britain style guide] for use on [[gov.uk]] recommends: "Use UK and United Kingdom in preference to Britain and British (UK business, UK foreign policy, ambassador and high commissioner). But British embassy, not UK embassy."}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Great Britain | island, Europe |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Britain-island-Europe |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2 April 2023 }}</ref> is a [[country]]<!-- The term 'country' was chosen as a result of a 2022 Request for Comment. Discuss potential changes on the talk page first. --> in [[Northwestern Europe]], off the north-western coast of the [[European mainland|continental mainland]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Kingdom Permanent Committee on Geographical Names |date=May 2017 |title=Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |website=GOV.UK |at=10.2 Definitions |quote=usually shortened to United Kingdom ... The abbreviation is UK or U.K.}}; {{Cite web |title=United Kingdom |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=27 May 2023 }}</ref> It comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], and [[Northern Ireland]].{{efn|The phrase "countries within a country" is sometimes used to describe the United Kingdom.}}<ref name="page823">{{Cite web |date=10 January 2003 |title=Countries within a country |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080909013512/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-date=9 September 2008 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Prime Minister's Office}}</ref> It includes the island of [[Great Britain]], the north-eastern part of the island of [[Ireland]], and most of the [[List of islands of the United Kingdom|smaller islands]] within the [[British Isles]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Great Britain in English |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223902/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=29 October 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote=Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom.}}</ref> Northern Ireland shares [[Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border|a land border]] with the [[Republic of Ireland]]; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the [[North Sea]], the [[English Channel]], the [[Celtic Sea]], and the [[Irish Sea]]. The total area of the United Kingdom is {{Convert|243610|km2|sqmi|order=flip}},<ref>{{cite web |title=United Kingdom country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18023389 |website=BBC News |access-date=27 January 2021 |date=24 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/#geography|title=United Kingdom|date=27 February 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=24 February 2023|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom#geography|url-status=live}}</ref> with an estimated 2022 population of nearly 67 million people. |
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The United Kingdom has evolved from a series of annexations, unions and separations of constituent countries over several hundred years. The [[Treaty of Union]] between the [[Kingdom of England]] (which included [[Wales]]) and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] in 1707 resulted in their unification to become the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. Its [[Acts of Union 1800|union in 1801]] with the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] created the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which formally adopted its name in 1927.{{Efn|The 1921 [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] resolved the [[Irish War of Independence]]. When it took effect one year later, it established the [[Irish Free State]] as a separate [[dominion]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. In 1927 the [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]] changed the name of the UK to reflect this.}} The nearby [[Isle of Man]], [[Bailiwick of Guernsey|Guernsey]] and [[Jersey]] are not part of the UK, being [[Crown Dependencies]], but the [[British government]] is responsible for their defence and international representation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |url= http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-url= http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Directgov]] |quote=The full title of this country is 'the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'. Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. 'Britain' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom.<br /> The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK.}}</ref> |
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The UK became the first [[Industrialisation|industrialised]] country and was the world's [[foremost power]] for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the "[[Pax Britannica]]" between 1815 and 1914.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mathias |first=P. |title=The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-26672-7 |location=London}}; {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |url= https://archive.org/details/empire00nial |title=Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power |publisher=Basic Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-465-02328-8 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=20th-century international relations |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date=4 May 2023 |last=McDougall |first=Walter A. |author-link=Walter A. McDougall |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155 |access-date=6 May 2023 }}</ref> The [[British Empire]], at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the [[List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent|largest empire in history]]; however, its involvement in the [[First World War]] and the [[Second World War]] damaged Britain's economic power and a global wave of [[decolonisation]] led to the independence of most British colonies.<ref>{{cite book |first=Judith |last=Brown |author-link=Judith M. Brown |title=The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924679-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |ref=refOHBEv4 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103114315/http://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |url-status=live }} p. 319</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Wm. Roger |last=Louis |title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-347-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |ref=refLouis2006 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222045215/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |url-status=live }} p. 337</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Abernethy |title=The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-300-09314-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |ref=refAbernethy2000 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214082531/http://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |url-status=live }} p. 146</ref> British influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of [[List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom|its former colonies]], and the [[Culture of the United Kingdom|UK's culture]] remains globally influential, particularly [[British literature|in literature]], [[English-speaking world|language]], [[Music of the United Kingdom|music]] and [[Sport in the United Kingdom|sport]]. [[English language|English]] is the world's [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most widely spoken language]] and the [[list of languages by number of native speakers|third-most spoken native language]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/|title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages?|website=Ethnologue|date=2023|access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref> |
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The United Kingdom is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[parliamentary democracy]].{{Efn|The United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution but an unwritten one formed of Acts of Parliament, court judgments, traditions, and conventions.<ref>{{Citation |title=What is the UK Constitution? |date=9 August 2018 |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/what-uk-constitution/what-uk-constitution |publisher=The Constitution Unit of UCL |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>}}<ref>[http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?"]. Retrieved 17 July 2013; [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ "United Kingdom"] CIA ''The World Factbook''. Retrieved 17 July 2013</ref> The capital and [[List of urban areas in the United Kingdom|largest city]] of the United Kingdom (as well as the capital of England) is [[London]]. The cities of [[Edinburgh]], [[Cardiff]], and [[Belfast]] are respectively the national capitals of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Other major cities include [[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]], [[Glasgow]], and [[Leeds]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population of Cities in United Kingdom 2023|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/united-kingdom |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=World Population Review}}</ref> The UK consists of three distinct legal jurisdictions: [[English Law|England and Wales]], [[Scots Law|Scotland]], and [[Northern Irish Law|Northern Ireland]]. This is due to these areas retaining their existing legal systems even after joining the UK.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dewart |first1=Megan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |title=The Scottish Legal System |date=2019 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-5265-0633-7 |location=UK |page=57 |quote=The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate ‘law areas’, with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law).}}; {{Cite web |title=The justice system and the constitution |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/#:~:text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20has%20three,of%20Union%201707%20and%201800. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521180341/https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=13 June 2023 |publisher=Courts and Tribunals Judiciary |quote=The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800.}}</ref> Since 1998, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland also have their own [[Devolution in the United Kingdom|devolved governments and legislatures]], each with varying powers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |access-date=17 April 2013 |publisher=United Kingdom Government |quote=In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...}}; {{Cite web |title=Country Overviews: United Kingdom |url=http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404062853/http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-date=4 April 2010 |access-date=28 March 2010 |publisher=Transport Research Knowledge Centre}}</ref> |
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The UK has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|sixth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product]] (GDP), and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|ninth-largest by purchasing power parity]]. It is a recognised [[nuclear state]] and is ranked [[List of countries by military expenditures|fourth globally in military expenditure]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 2021 |title=IISS Military Balance 2021 |url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791?journalCode=tmib20 |journal=The Military Balance |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=23–29 |doi=10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791 |access-date=1 October 2021 |s2cid=232050862}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |type=fact sheet|last1=da Silva |first1=Diego Lopes |last2=Tian |first2=Nan |last3=Béraud-Sudreau |first3=Lucie |last4=Marksteiner |first4=Alexandra |last5=Liang |first5=Xiao |date=April 2022 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021 |url= https://www.sipri.org/publications/2022/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2021 |publisher=[[SIPRI]] |doi=10.55163/DZJD8826|s2cid=248305949 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The UK has been [[permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|a permanent member of]] the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] since its first session in 1946. It is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[G7]], the [[OECD]], [[NATO]], the [[Five Eyes]], [[AUKUS]] and the [[Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership|CPTPP]]. |
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== Etymology and terminology == |
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{{Anchor|Etymology}}<!--linked--> |
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{{See also|Britain (place name)|Terminology of the British Isles}} |
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In {{nowrap|43 AD}}, ''Britannia'' referred to the [[Roman province]] that encompassed modern [[England and Wales]]. Great Britain encompassed the whole island, taking in the land north of the [[River Forth]] known to the Romans as [[Caledonia]] in modern [[Scotland]] (i.e. "greater" Britain).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Volume 10 – History of Greater Britain, as well England as Scotland – Series 1 – National Library of Scotland |url=https://digital.nls.uk/scottish-history-society-publications/browse/archive/125648349#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0&xywh=-1246,-232,3829,4638 |website=digital.nls.uk}}</ref> In the [[Middle Ages]], the name "Britain" was also applied to a small part of [[France]] now known as [[Brittany]]. As a result, [[Great Britain]] (likely from the French "{{lang|fr|Grande Bretagne}}") came into use to refer specifically to the island, with Brittany often referred to as "Little Britain".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Payne |first1=Malcolm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rasBRQwwOIIC&pg=PA247 |title=Social Work in the British Isles |last2=Shardlow |first2=Steven |date=2002 |publisher=[[Jessica Kingsley Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-85302-833-5 |location=UK |page=247 |author-link=Malcolm Payne}}</ref> However, that name had no official significance until 1707, when the island's kingdoms of [[England]] and Scotland were united as the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Richmond |first1=Ian Archibald |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |year=2012 |editor-last=Hornblower |editor-first=Simon |chapter=Caledonia |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1258 |edition=4th |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |access-date=14 February 2021 |last2=Millett |first2=Martin J. Millett |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther}}; {{Cite web |title=What's the Difference Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom? |url=https://www.britannica.com/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom |website=Britannica |first1=John M. |last1=Cunningham |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005142523/https://www.britannica.com/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom |archive-date= Oct 5, 2023 }}</ref> |
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The [[Acts of Union 1707]] declared that the [[Kingdom of England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland]] were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".{{Efn|Compare to section 1 of both of the 1800 [[Acts of Union (1800)|Acts of Union]] which reads: the ''Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall...be united into one Kingdom, by the Name of "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"''.}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=23 August 2011 |publisher=Scots History Online |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last1=Barnett, Hilaire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYc1tSYonrQC&pg=PA165 |title=Constitutional & Administrative Law |last2=Jago, Robert |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-56301-7 |edition=8th |location=Abingdon |page=165}}</ref> The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used as a description for the former [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain".<ref>"After the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the nation's official name became 'Great Britain{{'"}}, ''The American Pageant, Volume 1'', Cengage Learning (2012); "From 1707 until 1801 ''Great Britain'' was the official designation of the kingdoms of England and Scotland". ''The Standard Reference Work: For the Home, School and Library, Volume 3'', Harold Melvin Stanford (1921); "In 1707, on the union with Scotland, 'Great Britain' became the official name of the British Kingdom, and so continued until the union with Ireland in 1801". ''United States Congressional serial set, Issue 10; Issue 3265'' (1895); {{Cite web |last=Gascoigne, Bamber |author-link=Bamber Gascoigne |title=History of Great Britain (from 1707) |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab07 |access-date=18 July 2011 |publisher=History World}}</ref> The [[Acts of Union 1800]] united the kingdoms of [[Great Britain]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]] in 1801, forming the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Following the [[partition of Ireland]] and the independence of the [[Irish Free State]] in 1922, which left [[Northern Ireland]] as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cottrell, P. |url=https://archive.org/details/irishcivilwar00cott_573 |title=The Irish Civil War 1922–23 |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-270-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/irishcivilwar00cott_573/page/n85 85] |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url-access=limited}}</ref> |
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Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also widely referred to as [[countries]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=S. Dunn |title=An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict |year=2000 |place=[[Lewiston, New York]] |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |quote=One specific problem – in both general and particular senses – is to know what to call Northern Ireland itself: in the general sense, it is not a country, or a province, or a state – although some refer to it contemptuously as a statelet: the least controversial word appears to be jurisdiction, but this might change. |last2=H. Dawson}}; {{Cite web |date=15 December 2011 |title=Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_3166-2_newsletter_ii-3_2011-12-13.pdf |access-date=28 May 2012 |website=ISO 3166-2 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref> The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom.<ref name="page823" /> Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve [[NUTS of the United Kingdom|NUTS 1 regions]] refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistical bulletin: Regional Labour Market Statistics |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_346117.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224045523/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_346117.xml |archive-date=24 December 2014 |access-date=5 March 2014}}; {{Cite web |title=13.4% Fall In Earnings Value During Recession |url=http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/fall-in-earnings-value-during-recession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103194604/http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/fall-in-earnings-value-during-recession |archive-date=3 January 2014 |access-date=5 March 2014}}</ref> Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dunn, Seamus |title=An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict |last2=Dawson, Helen |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7734-7711-7 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]]}}; {{Cite book |last=Murphy, Dervla |title=[[A Place Apart]] |publisher=Penguin |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-14-005030-1 |location=London}}</ref> With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Whyte |first1=John |title=Interpreting Northern Ireland |last2=FitzGerald |first2=Garret |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-19-827380-6 |location=Oxford |author-link=John Henry Whyte |author-link2=Garret FitzGerald}}</ref> |
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The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 December 2008 |title=Guardian Unlimited Style Guide |publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/styleguide/page/0,,184840,00.html |access-date=23 August 2011}}; {{Cite news |date=19 August 2002 |title=BBC style guide (Great Britain) |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/radio_newsroom/1099593.stm#g |access-date=23 August 2011}}; {{Cite web |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=Government, citizens and rights |publisher=HM Government}}</ref> It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.<ref>[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]: "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom."</ref> The word ''England'' is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK.<ref>"When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain, sometimes the United Kingdom, sometimes the British Isles — but never England." — {{Citation |last=George Mikes |title=How To Be An Alien |year=1946 |publisher=Penguin}} {{ISBN|978-0-582-41686-4}}; {{Cite web |title=England OR United Kingdom (UK)? {{!}} Vocabulary {{!}} EnglishClub |url=https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/cw-uk-england.htm |access-date=16 October 2022 |website=www.englishclub.com}}</ref> |
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The [[Britain (place name)|term "Britain"]] is used as a synonym for [[Great Britain]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britain Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/britain |website=dictionary.cambridge.org}}; {{Cite web |title=Definition of Britain in English by Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/britain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926204707/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/britain |archive-date=26 September 2016 |website=Oxford Dictionaries – English}}</ref><ref name="Britain-Col">{{Cite web |title=Britain definition and meaning |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/britain |website=www.collinsdictionary.com |publisher=Collins English Dictionary}}</ref> and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britain – Definition for English-Language Learners |url=http://learnersdictionary.com/definition/Britain |website=learnersdictionary.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary}}</ref><ref name="Britain-Col" /> Usage is mixed: the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK Government]] prefers to use the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" on its website (except when referring to embassies),<ref>{{Cite web |title=A to Z – Style guide |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z-of-gov-uk-style#B |website=www.gov.uk |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> while acknowledging that both terms refer to the United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide">{{Cite web |last=Permanent Committee on Geographical Names |title=Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |website=gov.uk |date=17 May 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> The UK [[Permanent Committee on Geographical Names]] recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide" /> The [[BBC]] historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News style guide – Names |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133537 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110082858/https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133537 |archive-date=10 November 2019 |access-date=9 November 2019 |website=BBC Academy |publisher=BBC}}; {{Cite web |title=Alphabetical checklist |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/journalism/news-style-guide/article/art20130702112133551 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326162901/http://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/journalism/news-style-guide/article/art20130702112133551 |archive-date=26 March 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC}}</ref> |
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The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and [[British nationality law|matters to do with nationality]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bradley, Anthony Wilfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA36 |title=Constitutional and administrative law |last2=Ewing, Keith D. |publisher=Pearson Longman |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-1207-8 |edition=14th |volume=1 |location=Harlow |page=36}}</ref> People of the United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being [[British people|British]], [[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[People of Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]], or [[Irish people|Irish]];<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself? |url=http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2010/Community_Relations/NINATID.html |access-date=1 July 2010 |website=Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2010 |publisher=ARK – Access Research Knowledge}}</ref> or as having a combination of different national identities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |access-date=25 June 2020 |website=Office for National Statistics}}; {{Cite book |last=Schrijver, Frans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8gZklxHTMUC&pg=PA275 |title=Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-5629-428-1 |pages=275–277}}</ref> The official designation for a citizen of the United Kingdom is "British citizen".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide" /> |
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== History == |
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{{Main|Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|History of the British Isles}} |
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{{For timeline|Timeline of British history}} |
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=== Prior to the Treaty of Union === |
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{{Main|History of England|History of Wales|History of Scotland|History of Ireland}} |
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[[File:Stonehenge, Condado de Wiltshire, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 18.JPG|thumb|[[Stonehenge]] in [[Wiltshire]] is a ring of stones, each about {{Cvt|13|ft|0|order=flip}} high, {{Cvt|7|ft|0|order=flip}} wide and 25 [[tonne]]s, erected 2400–2200 BC.]] |
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Settlement by [[Cro-Magnons]] of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/7069001.stm "Ancient skeleton was 'even older']". [[BBC News]]. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.</ref> By the end of the [[Prehistoric Britain|region's prehistoric period]], the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed [[Insular Celts|Insular Celtic]], comprising [[Britons (historical)|Brittonic Britain]] and [[Gaelic Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koch, John T. |url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128 |title=Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n1016 973] |url-access=limited}}</ref> |
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[[File:Baños Romanos, Bath, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 39-41 HDR.JPG|alt=Photograph of the Baths showing a rectangular area of greenish water surrounded by yellow stone buildings with pillars. In the background is the tower of the abbey.|thumb|The [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Roman Baths]] in [[Bath, Somerset]], are a well-preserved ''[[thermae]]'' from [[Roman Britain]].]] |
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The [[Roman conquest of Britain|Roman conquest]], beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year [[Roman Britain|rule of southern Britain]], was followed by an invasion by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly [[Wales#Post-Roman era|to what was to become Wales]], [[Cornwall]] and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the [[Hen Ogledd]] (northern England and parts of southern Scotland).<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |publisher=University of Wales Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6 |editor-last=Davies |editor-first=John |editor-link=John Davies (historian) |location=Cardiff |page=915 |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Nigel |editor-link2=Nigel Jenkins |editor-last3=Baines |editor-first3=Menna |editor-last4=Lynch |editor-first4=Peredur I. |editor-link4=Peredur Lynch}}</ref> Most of the [[Anglo-Saxon England|region settled by the Anglo-Saxons]] became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Short Athelstan biography |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/athelstan.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=9 April 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Dál Riata|Gaelic-speakers in north-west Britain]] (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mackie, J.D. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 |title=A History of Scotland |publisher=Penguin |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013649-4 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 18–19] |author-link=J.D. Mackie}}; {{Cite book |last=Campbell, Ewan |title=Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots |publisher=Canongate |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-86241-874-8 |location=Edinburgh |pages=8–15}}</ref> united with the [[Picts]] to create the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30 |title=The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-39552-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30 30]}}</ref> |
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[[File:Bayeux Tapestry WillelmDux.jpg|thumb|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts the [[Battle of Hastings]], 1066, and the events leading to it.]] |
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In 1066, the [[Normans]] invaded England from northern France. After [[Norman conquest of England|conquering England]], they seized [[Norman invasion of Wales|large parts of Wales]], [[Norman invasion of Ireland|conquered much of Ireland]] and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country [[feudalism]] on the Northern French model and [[Norman-French]] culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganshof, F.L. |url=https://archive.org/details/feudalism0000gans_j4b5 |title=Feudalism |publisher=University of Toronto |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8020-7158-3 |page=165 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] [[ruling class]] greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chibnall, Marjorie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJl5Jm-IndUC&pg=PA115 |title=The Debate on the Norman Conquest |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7190-4913-2 |pages=115–122 |author-link=Marjorie Chibnall}}</ref> Subsequent [[House of Plantagenet|medieval English kings]] completed the [[conquest of Wales]] and tried unsuccessfully [[Wars of Scottish Independence|to annex Scotland]]. Asserting its independence in the 1320 [[Declaration of Arbroath]], Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in [[Anglo-Scottish Wars|near-constant conflict with England]]. |
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The English monarchs, through inheritance of [[Angevin Empire|substantial territories in France]] and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the [[Hundred Years' War]], while the [[List of Scottish monarchs|Kings of Scots]] were in [[Auld Alliance|an alliance with the French]] during this period.<ref>Keen, Maurice. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml "The Hundred Years' War"]. BBC History.</ref> |
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[[Early modern Britain]] saw religious conflict resulting from the [[Reformation]] and the introduction of [[Protestant]] state churches in each country.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism/41558/The-Reformation-in-England-and-Scotland The Reformation in England and Scotland] and [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22978/The-Reformation-period Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I], Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> The [[English Reformation]] ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and [[State religion|established]] the [[Church of England]]. Moreover, it defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English Reformation c1527-1590 |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-english-reformation-c1527-1590/ |access-date=20 January 2023 |website=The National Archives |language=en-GB}}</ref> Wales was [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542|fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England]],<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=5 November 2009 |title=British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=21 September 2010}}</ref> and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000nich |title=A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-631-19334-0 |location=Oxford |pages=171–172 |url-access=registration}}</ref> In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and [[Plantation of Ulster|given to Protestant settlers]] from England and Scotland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas P. |url=https://archive.org/details/makingirelandbri00cann |title=Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-925905-2 |pages=189–200 |url-access=registration}}</ref> |
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In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a [[personal union]] when [[James I of England|James VI, King of Scots]], inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from [[Edinburgh]] to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.<ref>Ross, D. (2002). ''[[iarchive:chronologyofscot0000ross|Chronology of Scottish History]]''. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. {{ISBN|978-1-85534-380-1}}; Hearn, J. (2002). ''Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture''. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. {{ISBN|978-1-902930-16-9}}</ref> |
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In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms|were involved in a series of connected wars]] (including the [[English Civil War]]) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the [[execution of Charles I|execution of King Charles I]], and the establishment of the short-lived [[unitary republic]] of the [[Commonwealth of England]], Scotland and Ireland.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=English Civil Wars |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187936/English-Civil-Wars |access-date=28 April 2013}}; {{Cite web |date=14 March 2010 |title=Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660 |url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/scotland/01_laws.php |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Archontology.org}}</ref> |
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Although the [[Restoration (1660)|monarchy was restored]], the [[Interregnum (1649–1660)|Interregnum]] along with the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 and the subsequent [[Bill of Rights 1689]] in England and [[Claim of Right Act 1689]] in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, [[royal absolutism]] would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The [[British constitution]] would develop on the basis of [[constitutional monarchy]] and the [[parliamentary system]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lodge |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |title=The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702) |publisher=Read Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-0897-4 |page=8 |orig-date=1910}}</ref> With the founding of the [[Royal Society]] in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of [[English navy|naval power]] and the interest in [[Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]] led to the acquisition and settlement of [[First British Empire|overseas colonies]], particularly in North America and the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy |url=http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103013901/http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-date=3 November 2011 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=Royal Navy History |publisher=Institute of Naval History}}; {{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQHSivGzEEMC |title=The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924676-2 |ref=refOHBEv1}}</ref> |
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Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the [[Treaty of Union]] of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments. |
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=== Kingdom of Great Britain === |
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{{Main|Treaty of Union|Kingdom of Great Britain}} |
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[[File:Treaty of Union.jpg|thumb|The [[Treaty of Union]] led to a united kingdom of all of [[Great Britain]].]] |
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On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the [[Acts of Union 1707]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Articles of Union with Scotland 1707 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm |access-date=19 October 2008 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite web |title=Acts of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny |access-date=6 January 2011 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite web |title=Treaty (act) of Union 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=3 February 2011 |publisher=Scottish History online}}</ref> |
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In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under [[Robert Walpole]], in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of [[Jacobite uprisings]] sought to remove the Protestant [[House of Hanover]] from the throne and restore the Catholic [[House of Stuart]]. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746, after which the [[Scottish Highlanders]] were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of [[Scottish clan chief|clan chiefs]]. The British colonies in North America that broke away in the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] became the [[United States]], recognised by Britain in 1783. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to [[India]].<ref>Library of Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BQDgr_XvsHoC&pg=PA73 ''The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad''], p. 73.</ref> |
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Britain played a leading part in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial [[slave ships]] transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA12 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-156627-1 |page=12}}</ref> The slaves were taken to work on [[Plantation economy|plantations]], principally in the [[History of the British West Indies|Caribbean]] but also [[British America|North America]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA15 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |publisher=Oxford University Press, US |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-156627-1 |page=15}}</ref> Slavery coupled with the [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|Caribbean sugar industry]] had a significant role in strengthening the British economy in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6IUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |date=2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923899-6 |page=83}}</ref> However, with pressure from the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionism movement]], Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the [[blockade of Africa]] and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery]. BBC Devon. 2007.; {{Cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |url=https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 |title=Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-78012-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 290]}}</ref> |
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=== United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland === |
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{{Main|History of the United Kingdom|Acts of Union (1800)|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} |
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In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Act of Union |url=http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415061235/http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act |archive-date=15 April 2012 |access-date=15 May 2006 |publisher=Act of Union Virtual Library}}</ref> |
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[[File:John Wilson Carmichael - The opening engagement at Trafalgar; H.M.S. 'Royal Sovereign' raking the stern of the Spanish flagship 'Santa Ana'.jpg|thumb|The opening engagement at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], by [[James Wilson Carmichael|J.W. Carmichael]]]] |
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After the defeat of France at the end of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).<ref>Tellier, L.-N. (2009). ''Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective''. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. {{ISBN|978-2-7605-1588-8}}.</ref> [[Royal Navy#1815–1914|Unchallenged at sea]], British dominance was later described as ''[[Pax Britannica]]'' ("British Peace"), a period of [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|relative peace among the Great Powers]] (1815–1914) during which the [[British Empire]] became the global [[hegemon]] and adopted the role of global policeman.<ref>[[#refJohnston2008|Johnston]], pp. 508–510.; [[#refOHBEv3|Porter]], p. 332.; Sondhaus, L. (2004). ''Navies in Modern World History''. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. {{ISBN|978-1-86189-202-7}}.; {{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924678-6 |page=332 |ref=refOHBEv3}}</ref> By the time of [[the Great Exhibition]] of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world".<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The Workshop of the World |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/workshop_of_the_world_01.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=28 April 2013}}</ref> From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the [[Crimean War]], allied with the [[Ottoman Empire]] against [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benn |first=David Wedgwood |title=The Crimean War and its lessons for today |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=88 |issue=2 |date=March 2012 |pages=387–391 |jstor=41428613 |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x }}</ref> participating in the naval battles of the [[Baltic Sea]] known as the [[Åland War]] in the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] and the [[Gulf of Finland]], among others.<ref>[https://runeberg.org/nfbs/0252.html ''Nordisk familjebok'' (1913), s. 435] (in Swedish)</ref> Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion in 1857]], the British government led by [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] assumed [[direct rule]] over [[British Raj|India]]. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively [[Informal Empire|controlled the economies]] of regions such as [[East Asia]] and [[Latin America]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924678-6 |page=8 |ref=refOHBEv3}}; {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=P.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-00254-7 |pages=156–157 |ref=refMarshall}}</ref> |
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[[File:Queen Victoria Statue.png|thumb|[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]] reigned as [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]] and [[Empress of India]] during the 19th century.]]Throughout the [[Victorian era]], political attitudes favoured [[free trade]] and [[laissez-faire]] policies, as well as a [[Reform Acts|gradual widening of the voting franchise]], with the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|1884 Reform Act]] championed by [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]] granting [[suffrage]] to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid [[Urbanization|urbanisation]], causing significant social and economic stresses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tompson |first=Richard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5kcJqmXk2oC&pg=PA63 |title=Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present |publisher=Facts on File |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8160-4474-0 |location=New York |page=63}}</ref> By the late 19th century, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] under [[Benjamin Disraeli]] and [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] initiated a period of [[Scramble for Africa|imperial expansion in Africa]], maintained a policy of [[splendid isolation]] in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Qajar Iran|Persia]], in what came to be known as the [[Great Game]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fromkin |first=David |date=1980 |title=The Great Game in Asia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512 |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=936–951 |doi=10.2307/20040512 |jstor=20040512 |issn=0015-7120}}</ref> During this time, [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] were granted self-governing [[dominion]] status.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hosch, William L. |title=World War I: People, Politics, and Power |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-61530-048-8 |series=America at War |location=New York |page=21}}</ref> At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the [[German Empire]] and the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zarembka |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSrwpggmHigC&pg=PP1 |title=Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid |date=2013 |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |isbn=978-1-78190-670-5}}</ref> The [[Edwardian era]] saw [[Liberal welfare reforms|social reform]] and [[Irish Home Rule movement|home rule for Ireland]] become important domestic issues, while the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] emerged from an alliance of [[Trade unions in the United Kingdom|trade unions]] and small socialist groups in 1900, and [[suffragettes]] campaigned for women's right to vote.<ref>Sophia A. Van Wingerden, ''The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928'' (1999) ch 1.</ref> |
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=== World wars and partition of Ireland === |
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{{Main|History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|Partition of Ireland|Interwar Britain|United Kingdom home front during the Second World War|Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II}} |
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[[File:Wreaths Are Laid at the Cenotaph, London During Remembrance Sunday Service MOD 45152052.jpg|thumb|Wreaths being laid during the [[Remembrance Sunday]] service at the [[The Cenotaph|Cenotaph]] in Whitehall, London]] |
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Britain was one of the principal [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] that defeated the [[Central Powers]] in the [[First World War]] (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts,<ref>Turner, John (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}.</ref> British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].<ref name="Westwell&Cove" /> The high fatalities of [[trench warfare]] caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.<ref name="Westwell&Cove">Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). ''History of World War I, Volume 3''. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. {{ISBN|978-0-7614-7231-5}}.</ref> The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections with the [[Representation of the People Act 1918]].<ref name="Westwell&Cove" /> After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the [[League of Nations]] and received a [[League of Nations mandate|mandate]] over a number of former German and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] colonies. Under the leadership of [[David Lloyd George]], the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.<ref>Turner, J. (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}.</ref> |
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By the mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to [[BBC]] radio programmes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough |url=https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/features-and-news/100-years-of-radio |access-date=17 November 2020 |website=Ofcom}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/research/local-radio |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=bbc.com |last=Linfoot |first=Matthew}}</ref> Experimental television broadcasts [[History of television#United Kingdom|began in 1929]] and the [[First day of BBC television|first scheduled BBC Television Service]] commenced in 1936.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the BBC: 1920s |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/timelines/1920s |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=bbc.com |language=en}}</ref> The rise of [[Irish nationalism]], and disputes within Ireland over the terms of [[Irish Home Rule]], led eventually to the [[Partition of Ireland|partition of the island]] in 1921.<ref>[[SR&O 1921]]/533 of 3 May 1921.</ref> The [[Irish Free State]] became independent, initially with [[Dominion]] status in 1922, and [[Statute of Westminster 1931#Irish Free State|unambiguously independent in 1931]]. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921 |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |access-date=15 May 2006 |website=CAIN Web Service}}</ref> The [[1928 Equal Franchise Act]] gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the [[General Strike of 1926]], which ended in a victory for the government led by [[Stanley Baldwin]]. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]] (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A [[National Government (1931)|coalition government]] was formed in 1931.<ref>Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). ''Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. {{ISBN|978-0-415-03719-8}}.</ref> |
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[[File:Spitfire and Hurricane in the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight.jpg|thumb|[[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] and [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane]] as flown in the [[Battle of Britain]] during the [[Second World War]]]] |
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Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."<ref name="Edgerton2012">{{Cite book|last=Edgerton|first=David|date=2012|title=Britain's War Machine|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/55731/britain-s-war-machine/9780141026107.html|access-date=10 May 2020|publisher=www.penguin.co.uk|language=en|postscript=none}}; {{Cite web |title=Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War |url=https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1114 |access-date=10 May 2020 |website=Reviews in History |language=en}}</ref> After [[Nazi Germany]] invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the [[Second World War]]. [[Winston Churchill]] became prime minister and head of a [[Churchill war ministry|coalition government]] in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort.<ref name="Edgerton2012" /> |
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In 1940, the [[Royal Air Force]] defeated the German [[Luftwaffe]] in the [[Battle of Britain]]. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during [[the Blitz]]. The [[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Grand Alliance]] of Britain, the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] formed in 1941, leading the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] against the [[Axis powers]]. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the [[Battle of the Atlantic]], the [[North Africa campaign]] and the [[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]]. British forces played important roles in the [[Normandy landings]] of 1944 and the [[liberation of Europe]]. The British Army led the [[Burma campaign]] against Japan, and the [[British Pacific Fleet]] fought Japan at sea. British scientists [[British contribution to the Manhattan Project|contributed to the Manhattan Project]] whose task was to build an atomic weapon.<ref>{{cite book |author=Septimus H. Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSZpgW-N628C&pg=PA1 |title=Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 |publisher=Ohio State U.P. |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8142-0852-6 |pages=1–5}}</ref> Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945 |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01/d619 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918063918/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01/d619 |archive-date=18 September 2017 |access-date=22 November 2017 |publisher=United States Department of State}}</ref> The wartime net losses in British national wealth amounted to 18.6% (£4.595 billion) of the prewar wealth (£24.68 billion), at 1938 prices.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=The United Kingdom: 'Victory at all costs' |first1=Stephen |last1=Broadberry |first2=Peter |last2=Howlett|title=The economics of World War II: Six great powers in international comparison|editor-last=Harrison|editor-first=Michael|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998| page=69|url=http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/13137/1/300%20.%20Mark_Harrison.pdf}}</ref> |
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=== Postwar 20th century === |
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{{Main|Postwar Britain (1945–1979)|Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)}} |
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[[File:British Empire 1921.png|thumb|upright=1.5|left|The [[British Empire]] at its territorial peak in 1921]] |
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The UK was one of the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three]] powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world;<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7 |access-date=19 March 2016}}; {{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Brian |url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |title=The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives |publisher=Indiana University of Pennsylvania |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> it was an original signatory to the [[Declaration by United Nations]] and became one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. It worked closely with the United States to establish the [[IMF]], [[World Bank]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2010 |title=The "Special Relationship" between Great Britain and the United States Began with FDR |url=http://rooseveltinstitute.org/special-relationship-between-great-britain-and-united-states-began-fdr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125021103/http://rooseveltinstitute.org/special-relationship-between-great-britain-and-united-states-began-fdr |archive-date=25 January 2018 |access-date=24 January 2018 |publisher=Roosevelt Institute |quote=and the joint efforts of both powers to create a new post-war strategic and economic order through the drafting of the Atlantic Charter; the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; and the creation of the United Nations.}}; {{Cite press release |title=Remarks by the President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron in Joint Press Conference |date=22 April 2016 |publisher=The White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/04/22/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-cameron-joint-press |quote=That's what we built after World War II. The United States and the UK designed a set of institutions – whether it was the United Nations, or the Bretton Woods structure, IMF, World Bank, NATO, across the board. |access-date=24 January 2018}}</ref> The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the [[Marshall Plan]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 December 2006 |title=Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S. |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/business/worldbusiness/28iht-nazi.4042453.html |access-date=25 August 2011}}</ref> but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Reynolds |first=David |date=17 April 2011 |title=Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/apr/17/britains-war-machine-david-edgerton-review |access-date=10 May 2020}}</ref> |
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In the immediate post-war years, the [[Labour Government 1945–1951|Labour government]] under [[Clement Attlee]] initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society [[Post-war consensus|in the following decades]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Francis |first=Martin |title=Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7190-4833-3 |pages=225–233}}</ref> Major industries and public utilities were [[Nationalization|nationalised]], a [[welfare state]] was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the [[National Health Service]], was created.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Stephen J. |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees |title=Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995 |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-13103-2 |location=London; New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees/page/n183 173]–199 |url-access=limited}}</ref> The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of [[decolonisation]] was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Larres |first=Klaus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D66_9YOof4C&pg=PA118 |title=A companion to Europe since 1945 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-0612-2 |location=Chichester |page=118}}</ref> Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2009 |title=Country List |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/System/YearbookHomePage.asp?NodeID=152099&load=countrylist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506071236/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/System/YearbookHomePage.asp?NodeID=152099&load=countrylist |archive-date=6 May 2013 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=[[Commonwealth Secretariat]]}}</ref> |
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[[File:British Airways Concorde G-BOAC 03.jpg|thumb|[[Concorde]] was a [[Supersonic speed|supersonic]] airliner that reduced transatlantic flight time from 8 hours to 3.5 hours.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde|access-date=30 March 2023|title=Celebrating Concorde|archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317103939/https://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde}}</ref>]] |
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The UK was the third country to develop [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|a nuclear weapons arsenal]] (with its first atomic bomb test, [[Operation Hurricane]], in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956. The [[English-speaking world|international spread of the English language]] ensured the continuing international influence of its [[British literature|literature]] and [[Culture of the United Kingdom|culture]].<ref name="culture" /><ref name="sheridan" /> As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from [[Commonwealth countries]]. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Julios |first=Christina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84 |title=Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse |publisher=Ashgate |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-7158-9 |series=Studies in migration and diaspora |location=Aldershot |page=84}}</ref> Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, [[West Germany]] and Japan. |
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In the decades-long process of [[European integration]], the UK was a founding member of the [[Western European Union]], established with the [[London and Paris Conferences]] in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the [[European Communities]] (EC). In a [[1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum|1975 referendum]] 67% voted to stay in it.<ref>{{Cite news |title=1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm |access-date=8 March 2015}}</ref> When the EC became the [[European Union]] (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. |
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From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as [[the Troubles]]. It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement|Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aughey |first=Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh |title=The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-32788-6 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh/page/n15 7] |url-access=limited}}; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." {{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |url=https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 |title=Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland |publisher=Henry Holt |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8050-6087-4 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 221]}}; Elliot, Marianne (2007). ''The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University.'' University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. {{ISBN|978-1-84631-065-2}}.</ref> |
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[[File:Greenwich and Canary Wharf (1) - 2022-04-24.jpg|thumb|[[Canary Wharf]], a symbol of [[Big Bang (financial markets)|the financial reforms]] initiated by [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the 1980s]] |
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Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of the 1980s led by [[Margaret Thatcher]] initiated a radical policy of [[monetarism]], deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the [[Big Bang (financial markets)|Big Bang]] in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dorey |first=Peter |title=British politics since 1945 |publisher=Blackwell |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-631-19075-2 |series=Making contemporary Britain |location=Oxford |pages=164–223}}</ref> |
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In 1982, [[Argentina]] invaded the British territories of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] and the [[Falkland Islands]], leading to the 10-week [[Falklands War]] in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a [[2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendum|2013 referendum]]. From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial [[North Sea oil]] revenues.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Griffiths, Alan |url=http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf |title=Applied Economics |last2=Wall, Stuart |publisher=Financial Times Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-273-70822-3 |edition=11th |location=Harlow |page=6 |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823124048/http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of [[devolution|devolved]] administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=1 January 1998 |title=Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom |journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=217–234 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948}}</ref> The [[Human Rights Act 1998|statutory incorporation]] followed acceptance of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. The UK remained a [[List of modern great powers#United Kingdom|Great Power]] with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and [[NATO]].<ref name="David M. McCourt">{{Cite book |last=McCourt |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&q=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics |title=Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-472-07221-7}}</ref> |
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=== 21st century === |
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{{Main|Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)|Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)}} |
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[[File:Brexit Campaigners out side Parliament November 2016.jpg|thumb|left|Pro-[[Brexit]] campaigners outside Parliament in London in November 2016, after the [[Brexit referendum]]]] |
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The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the "[[war on terror]]" in the early 21st century.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McSmith |first=Andy |date=5 July 2016 |title=The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq |work=The Independent |location= London |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-iraq-war-inquiry-tony-blair-george-bush-us-uk-what-happened-a7119761.html |access-date=17 February 2022}}</ref> British troops fought in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]], but controversy surrounded Britain's [[Iraq War|military deployment in Iraq]], which saw the [[15 February 2003 anti-war protests|largest protest in British history]] demonstrating in opposition to the government led by [[Tony Blair]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Adams |first=Tim |date=11 February 2023 |title='A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world? |work=The Observer |location= London |url= https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/feb/11/slugs-iraq-war-london-protest-2003-legacy |access-date=5 June 2023 }}</ref> |
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The [[2008 global financial crisis]] severely affected the UK economy.<ref name="Latest UK GDP data">{{cite web |date=20 December 2013 |title=Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices) |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=ABMI&dataset=qna&table-id=A2 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> The [[Cameron–Clegg coalition]] government of 2010 introduced [[United Kingdom government austerity programme|austerity]] measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2022 |title=What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now? |work=BBC News |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/63304224 |access-date=28 July 2023}}</ref> Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Butler |first=Patrick |date=4 October 2022 |title=Over 330,000 excess deaths in Great Britain linked to austerity, finds study |work=The Guardian |location= London |url= https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/oct/05/over-330000-excess-deaths-in-great-britain-linked-to-austerity-finds-study |access-date=28 July 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mueller |first=Benjamin |date=25 February 2019 |title=What Is Austerity and How Has It Affected British Society? |work=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/24/world/europe/britain-austerity-may-budget.html |access-date=28 July 2023}}</ref> A referendum on [[Scottish independence]] in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|voting by 55.3 to 44.7%]] to remain part of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish independence referendum – Results |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results |access-date=18 February 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref> |
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In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|voted to leave the European Union]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 June 2016 |title=In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/britons-head-to-the-polls-for-historic-vote-on-eu/2016/06/23/0d466fb0-34a7-11e6-ab9d-1da2b0f24f93_story.html |access-date=24 June 2016 |first1=Griff |last1=Witte |first2=Karla |last2=Adam |first3=Dan |last3=Balz}}</ref> The [[Brexit|UK left the EU]] in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 January 2021 |title=Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781 |access-date=18 February 2022}}</ref> On 1 May 2021 the [[EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement]] came into force.<ref name="commission.europa.eu">{{Cite web |title=The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-non-eu-countries/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325155905/https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-non-eu-countries/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref> |
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The [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|COVID-19 pandemic]] had a severe [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|impact on the UK's economy]], caused major [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom|disruptions to education]] and had [[Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|far-reaching impacts on society and politics]] in 2020 and 2021.<ref name="GOVUK">{{cite web |url=https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/ |title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK |website=[[gov.uk]] |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=15 April 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200414184317/https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Coronavirus and the impact on output in the UK economy: April 2020|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/articles/coronavirusandtheimpactonoutputintheukeconomy/april2020|access-date=2 August 2020|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|website=ons.gov.uk|archive-date=2 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802031859/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/articles/coronavirusandtheimpactonoutputintheukeconomy/april2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Walker|first=Andrew|date=10 June 2020|title=Coronavirus: UK economy could be among worst hit of leading nations, says OECD|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52991913|access-date=2 August 2020|archive-date=18 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818031423/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52991913|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved [[COVID-19 vaccine]], developing its own vaccine through a collaboration between [[Oxford University]] and [[AstraZeneca]], which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Landmark moment as first NHS patient receives COVID-19 vaccination |url=https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/12/landmark-moment-as-first-nhs-patient-receives-covid-19-vaccination/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225194320/https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/12/landmark-moment-as-first-nhs-patient-receives-covid-19-vaccination/|archive-date=25 February 2023|website=NHS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oxford University/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine approved |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/oxford-universityastrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-approved |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225194442/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/oxford-universityastrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-approved |archive-date=25 February 2023|website=UK Government}}</ref> |
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On 8 September 2022, [[Elizabeth II]], the longest-living and [[List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign|longest-reigning British monarch]], [[Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II|died]] at the age of 96.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 September 2022 |title=Queen Elizabeth II has died |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-61585886 |url-status=live |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908173308/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-61585886 |archive-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> Upon the Queen's death, her eldest child Charles, Prince of Wales, acceded to the [[British throne]] as [[Charles III]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 September 2022 |title=King Charles III, the new monarch |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-59135132 |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> |
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== Geography == |
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{{Main|Geography of the United Kingdom|Fauna of Great Britain|Flora of Great Britain and Ireland}} |
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[[File:MODIS - Great Britain and Northern Ireland - 2012-06-04 during heat wave (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Satellite image]] of the United Kingdom (excluding [[Shetland]])]] |
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The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately {{Convert|243610|km2|sqmi|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012/Table03.pdf |title=Demographic Yearbook – Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=9 August 2015 |year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/#geography|title=United Kingdom|date=27 February 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=24 February 2023|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom#geography|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=United Kingdom country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18023389 |website=BBC News |access-date=27 January 2021 |date=24 February 2020}}</ref> The country occupies the major part of the [[British Isles]]<ref>Oxford English Dictionary: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands."</ref> archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within {{Convert|35|km|mi|0|order=flip}} of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the [[English Channel]].<ref name="factbook">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom |access-date=23 September 2008 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> |
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The [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Greenwich Observatory]] in London was chosen as the defining point of the [[Prime Meridian]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=ROG Learning Team |date=23 August 2002 |title=The Prime Meridian at Greenwich |url=http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107023957/http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |archive-date=7 November 2015 |access-date=11 September 2012 |website=Royal Museums Greenwich }}</ref> at the [[International Meridian Conference]] in 1884.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 August 2015 |title=Greenwich Royal Observatory: How the Prime Meridian line is actually 100 metres away from where it was believed to be |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/greenwich-royal-observatory-how-the-prime-meridian-line-is-actually-100-metres-away-from-where-it-10452386.html |access-date=13 December 2018}}</ref> |
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The United Kingdom lies between latitudes [[49th parallel north|49°]] and [[61st parallel north|61° N]], and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9° W]] and [[2nd meridian east|2° E]]. Northern Ireland shares a {{Convert|360|km|mi|0|adj=on|order=flip}} land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.<ref name="factbook" /> The coastline of Great Britain is {{Convert|17820|km|mi|0|order=flip}} long.<ref name="UK coastline">{{Cite web |last=Darkes |first=Giles |date=January 2008 |title=How long is the UK coastline? |url=http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522042745/http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |archive-date=22 May 2012 |access-date=24 January 2015 |publisher=The [[British Cartographic Society]]}}</ref> It is connected to continental Europe by the [[Channel Tunnel]], which at {{Convert|50|km|mi|0|order=flip}} ({{Convert|38|km|mi|0|order=flip}} underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Channel Tunnel |url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218114514/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archive-date=18 December 2010 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Eurotunnel}}</ref> |
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The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: [[Celtic broadleaf forests]], [[English Lowlands beech forests]], [[North Atlantic moist mixed forests]], and [[Caledon conifer forests]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |issn=0006-3568 |pmc=5451287 |pmid=28608869 |doi-access=free |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad}}</ref> The area of woodland in the UK in 2023 is estimated to be 3.25 million hectares, which represents 13% of the total land area in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/statistics-by-topic/woodland-statistics/|title=Woodland Statistics, Key findings|access-date=8 July 2023}}</ref> |
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=== Climate === |
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{{Main|Climate of the United Kingdom|Climate change in the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:UK Köppen.svg|upright|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of the UK]] |
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Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round.<ref name="factbook" /> The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below {{Convert|0|C|lk=on}} or rising above {{Convert|30|C}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hottest day of each year from 1900 |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/hottest-day-of-each-year-from-1900.html |website=www.trevorharley.com}}; {{Cite web |title=Coldest day of each year from 1900 |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/coldest-days-of-each-year-from-1900.html |website=www.trevorharley.com}}</ref> Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience a [[subpolar oceanic climate]] (''Cfc''). Higher elevations in Scotland experience a [[Subarctic climate|continental subarctic climate]] (''Dfc'') and the mountains experience a [[tundra climate]] (''ET'').<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2016 |title=English: A map of Köppen climate types in the United Kingdom (SVG version) |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UK_K%C3%B6ppen.svg}}</ref> |
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The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean,<ref name="factbook" /> although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions, the eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]], bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atlantic Ocean Circulation (Gulf Stream) |url=http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=UK Climate Projections |publisher=Met Office}}</ref> |
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The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible.<ref name="ukaverages">{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/uk.html |title=UK 1971–2000 averages |access-date=4 August 2007 |publisher=Met Office |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705140124/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/uk.html |archive-date=5 July 2009 }}</ref> The hours of sunshine vary from 1200 to about 1580 hours per year, and since 1996 the UK has been and still is receiving above the 1981 to 2010 average hours of sunshine.<ref name="met off climate series">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-temperature-rainfall-and-sunshine-time-series|title=UK temperature, rainfall and sunshine time series|website=Met Office}}</ref> |
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As of 2022, the United Kingdom is ranked 2nd out of 180 countries in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 EPI Results |url=https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2022/component/epi |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=Environmental Performance Index}}</ref> A law has been passed that [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom|UK greenhouse gas emissions]] will be [[net zero]] by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK net zero target |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/net-zero-target#:~:text=In%20June%202019%2C%20parliament%20passed,to%201990%20levels%20by%202050.&text=Prior%20to%20this%2C%20the%20UK,1990%20levels%2C%20also%20by%202050. |access-date=20 November 2020 |website=Institute for Government| date=20 April 2020 }}</ref> |
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=== Topography === |
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[[Geography of England|England]] accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering {{Convert|130395|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 February 2010 |title=England – Profile |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm}}</ref> Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,<ref name="Atlapedia">{{Cite web |last=Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd |title=United Kingdom – Atlapedia Online |url=http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm |access-date=26 October 2010 |website=Atlapedia.com}}{{better source needed|date=July 2023}}</ref> with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the [[Tees–Exe line]] which roughly divides the UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include [[Cornwall]], the [[New Forest]], the [[South Downs]] and the [[The Broads|Norfolk Broads]]. Upland areas include the [[Lake District]], the [[Pennines]], the [[Yorkshire Dales]], [[Exmoor]], and [[Dartmoor]]. The main rivers and estuaries are the [[River Thames|Thames]], [[River Severn|Severn]], and the [[Humber]]. England's highest mountain is [[Scafell Pike]], at {{Convert|978|m|ft|0}} in the Lake District; its largest island is the [[Isle of Wight]]. |
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{{Multiple image|direction = vertical|image1 = Keswick Panorama - Oct 2009.jpg|width1 = 225|caption1 = The [[Skiddaw|Skiddaw massif]], [[Keswick, Cumbria|Keswick]] and [[Derwent Water]] in the [[Lake District]]|alt1 =|image2 = Quiraing Isle of Skye Pano.jpg|width2 = 225|caption2 = [[Isle of Skye|Skye]] is one of the major islands in the [[Inner Hebrides]] and part of the [[Scottish Highlands]]. }} |
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[[Geography of Scotland|Scotland]] accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering {{Convert|78772|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland Facts |url=http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621045248/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archive-date=21 June 2008 |access-date=16 July 2008 |publisher=Scotland Online Gateway}}</ref> This includes nearly 800 [[List of islands of Scotland|islands]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Winter |first=Jon |date=1 June 2000 |title=The complete guide to the ... Scottish Islands |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-the--scottish-islands-633851.html |access-date=8 March 2015}}</ref> notably the [[Hebrides]], [[Orkney]] Islands and [[Shetland]] Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK, the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including the [[Cairngorms]], [[Loch Lomond and The Trossachs]] and [[Ben Nevis]] which at {{Convert|1345|m|ft|0}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2016 |title=Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/2016/03/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller |access-date=9 September 2018 |publisher=Ordnance Survey}}</ref> is the highest point in the British Isles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ben Nevis Weather |url=http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510193022/http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |archive-date=10 May 2012 |access-date=26 October 2008 |publisher=Ben Nevis Weather}}</ref> |
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[[Geography of Wales|Wales]] accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering {{Convert|20779|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 June 2010 |title=Profile: Wales |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm |access-date=7 November 2010}}</ref> Wales is mostly mountainous, though [[South Wales]] is less mountainous than [[North Wales|North]] and [[mid Wales]]. The highest mountains in Wales are in [[Snowdonia]] and include [[Snowdon]] ({{Lang-cy|Yr Wyddfa}}) which, at {{Convert|1085|m|ft|0}}, is the highest peak in Wales.<ref name="Atlapedia" /> Wales has over {{Convert|1680|mi|0|abbr=off}} of coastline including the [[Pembrokeshire Coast]].<ref name="UK coastline" /> Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is [[Anglesey]] (''Ynys Môn''). |
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[[Geography of Ireland|Northern Ireland]], separated from Great Britain by the [[Irish Sea]] and [[North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland)|North Channel]], has an area of {{Convert|14160|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}} and is mostly hilly. It includes [[Lough Neagh]] which, at {{Convert|388|km2|sqmi|order=flip|0}}, is the largest lake in the British Isles by area,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geography of Northern Ireland |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |access-date=22 May 2006 |publisher=University of Ulster}}</ref> [[Lough Erne]] which has over 150 islands and the [[Giant's Causeway]] which is a World Heritage Site. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is [[Slieve Donard]] in the [[Mourne Mountains]] at {{Convert|852|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Atlapedia" /> |
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== Politics == |
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{{Main|Politics of the United Kingdom|Government of the United Kingdom|Monarchy of the United Kingdom}} |
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{{multiple image |
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| align = right |
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| total_width = 320 |
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| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg |
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| alt1 = King Charles III |
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| caption1 = [[Charles III]], [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarch]] since 2022 |
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| image2 = Official Portrait of Prime Minister Rishi Sunak (cropped).jpg |
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| alt2 = Rishi Sunak |
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| caption2 = [[Rishi Sunak]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] since 2022 |
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}} |
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The UK is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[parliamentary democracy]] operating under the [[Westminster system]], otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stepan |first1=Alfred |last2=Linz |first2=Juan J. |last3=Minoves |first3=Juli F. |date=2014 |title=Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v025/25.2.stepan.html |journal=Journal of Democracy |language=en |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.1353/jod.2014.0032 |issn=1086-3214 |s2cid=154555066}}</ref> It is a [[Centralized government|centralised]], [[unitary state]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewer |first=Andrew |date=5 May 2021 |title=The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy |url=https://www.centreforcities.org/?post_type=publication&p=40951 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Centre for Cities |language=en-US}}</ref> wherein the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] is [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|sovereign]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Sovereignty |url=https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}}</ref> Parliament is made up of the elected [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], the appointed [[House of Lords]] and [[the Crown]] (as personified by the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|monarch]]).{{Efn|British [[sovereignty]] derives from the Crown, a [[corporation sole]] occupied by the monarch. It is therefore by and through the monarch that Parliament exercises supreme legislative authority over both the executive and judiciary. Distinguished Professor of [[Public Law]] Maurice Sunkin opined the Crown symbolically occupies "…what in other places would be a core element of a written constitution."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibanet.org/Relationship-between-UK-Crown-and-law-in-focus-as-Carolean-era-begins|title=Relationship between UK Crown and law in focus as Carolean era begins|author=Polly Botsford|publisher=International Bar Association|publication-date=22 September 2022|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref> As a result of this state of constitutional affairs, the monarch is formally referred to as "[[Sovereign|the Sovereign]]" in legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/section/10|title=Interpretation Act 1978 (c. 30, s. 10)|publisher=The National Archives|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref>}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Parliament |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}}</ref> The main business of parliament takes place in the two houses,<ref name=":1" /> but [[royal assent]] is required for a bill to become an [[Act of Parliament (UK)|act of parliament]] (that is, [[statute law]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Assent |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}}</ref> As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]] is [[Uncodified constitution|uncodified]], consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary [[statute]]s, judge-made [[case law]] and international treaties, together with [[British Constitution#Conventions|constitutional conventions]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carter, Sarah |title=A Guide To the UK Legal System |url=http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm#UK%20Legal%20System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505115306/http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm |archive-date=5 May 2012 |access-date=16 May 2006 |publisher=[[University of Kent]] at Canterbury}}</ref> Nevertheless, the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|parliamentary sovereignty]], the [[rule of law]], [[democracy]], and upholding [[Internationalism (politics)|international law]].<ref>See ''[[R (Miller) v Prime Minister]]'' [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), ''[[R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor]]'' [2017] [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html UKSC 51], [67] ff (rule of law), ''[[R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport]]'' [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), ''[[R v Lyons]]'' [2002] [https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html UKHL 44], [27] (international law).</ref> |
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[[Charles III|King Charles III]] is the current [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|monarch]] and [[head of state]] of the UK and of 14 other independent countries. These 15 countries are today referred to as "[[Commonwealth realm]]s". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of the Crown and is "...fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK."<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united|title=The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom|author=Robert Blackburn|journal=Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart |series=Neue Folge |year=2022 |volume=70 |pages=181–201|editor=O. Lepsius |editor2=A. Nußberger |editor3=C. Schönberger |editor4=C. Waldhoff |editor5=C. Walter |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Mohr Siebeck|doi=10.1628/joer-2022-0009 |s2cid=257830288 |publication-date=2 June 2022|access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref> The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the [[Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom|royal prerogative]], is generally exercised only on the [[Advice (constitutional law)|advice]] of [[ministers of the Crown]] responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties, the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".<ref>[[Walter Bagehot|Bagehot, Walter]] (1867). ''The English Constitution''. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103.</ref> In addition, the monarch has a number of [[Reserve power#United Kingdom|reserve powers]] at his disposal, albeit rarely used, to uphold [[responsible government]] and prevent [[constitutional crisis|constitutional crises]].{{Efn|For instance, the monarch alone appoints the prime minister and confers [[Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom|state honours]] in the personal gift of the Crown. When necessary, the monarch may also refuse a [[dissolution of Parliament|dissolution]] or [[Prorogation in the United Kingdom|prorogation of Parliament]], withhold [[royal assent]] to [[Act of Parliament (UK)|primary legislation]], and prevent illegal use of the [[British Armed Forces]], among other reserve powers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8885/CBP-8885.pdf|title=The Crown and the Constitution|author=David Torrance|publisher=House of Commons Library|publication-date=11 January 2023|access-date=19 June 2023|pages=22}}</ref>}} |
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[[File:Palace of Westminster, London - Feb 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Large sand-coloured building of Gothic design beside brown river and road bridge. The building has several large towers, including large clock tower.|The [[Palace of Westminster]] in London is the seat of both houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.]] |
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For [[General elections in the United Kingdom|general elections]] (elections to the House of Commons), the UK is currently divided into 650 [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituencies]], each of which is represented by one [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|member of Parliament]] (MP) elected by the [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] system.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=General elections |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/elections-and-voting/general |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}}</ref> MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP.<ref name=":2" /> The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] have been the dominant political parties in the UK since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a [[two-party system]]. However, since the 1920s other [[List of political parties in the United Kingdom|political parties]] have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raymond |first=C |date=2016 |title=Why British Politics is Not a Two-Party System |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/107735631/The_United_Kingdom_is_Not_a_Two_Party_System.pdf |website=Queen's University Belfast}}</ref> |
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The [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]] is the [[head of government]] in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet |url=http://direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921004951/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archive-date=21 September 2012 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=Public services all in one place |publisher=[[Directgov]]}}</ref> Acting under the direction and supervision of a [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, the [[Government of the United Kingdom|Government]] serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], promulgates [[statutory instrument (UK)|statutory instruments]] and tenders advice to the monarch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/cabinet|title=Cabinet|author=Tim Durrant|date=25 March 2020 |publisher=Institute for Government|publication-date=25 March 2020|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/relations-with-other-institutions/parliament-government/|title=Parliament and Government|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C|title=The Monarchy and the Constitution, Chapter 3 – The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative|author=Vernon Bogdanor|year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-829334-7 |publication-date=1995|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref> |
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Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as [[First Lord of the Treasury]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blick |first1=Andrew |last2=Jones |first2=George |date=1 January 2012 |title=The Institution of Prime Minister – History of government |url=https://history.blog.gov.uk/2012/01/01/the-institution-of-prime-minister |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]]}}</ref> and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Jack |title=The Prime Ministers |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5293-1214-0 |editor-last=Dale |editor-first=Iain |page=303}}</ref> [[Minister for the Civil Service]] since 1968,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minister for the Civil Service |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-civil-service |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]]}}</ref> and [[Minister for the Union]] since 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Woodcock |first=Andrew |date=26 July 2021 |title=Boris Johnson accused of 'cynical rebranding' after appointing himself 'Minister for the Union' |work=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-minister-union-scotland-independence-referendum-snp-a9022356.html |access-date=19 July 2021}}; {{Cite web |title=Minister for the Union |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-union |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]]}}</ref> While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by [[Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom|convention]], an MP, the leader of the [[Political Parties of the United Kingdom|political party]] with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2011 |title=The Cabinet Manual |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |page=7}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=October 2011 |title=The Cabinet Manual |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |page=21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Norton |first=Philip |title=Governing Britain: Parliament, Ministers and Our Ambiguous Constitution |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5261-4545-1 |page=130}}</ref> The current Prime Minister, as of October 2022, is [[Rishi Sunak]] MP, leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]. |
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=== Administrative divisions === |
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{{Main|Countries of the United Kingdom|Administrative geography of the United Kingdom|List of counties in the United Kingdom}} |
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The geographical division of the United Kingdom into [[Counties of the United Kingdom|counties]] or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages, and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early Modern Period.<ref>Hackwood Frederick William: ''The Story of the Shire, Being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions'' (1851)</ref> Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales in [[Local Government Act 1888|1888]], Scotland in [[Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889|1889]] and Ireland in [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898|1898]], meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Economic and Social Council |author-link=United Nations Economic and Social Council |date=August 2007 |title=Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/9th-uncsgn-docs/report%20of%209th%20uncsgn%20n0750902%20en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211213055/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/9th-UNCSGN-Docs/E-CONF-98-48-Add1.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2009 |access-date=21 October 2008 |publisher=UN Statistics Division}}</ref> |
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Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barlow |first=I.M. |title=Metropolitan Government |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-415-02099-2 |location=London}}</ref> |
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[[Local government in England]] is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier [[subdivisions of England]] are the nine [[Regions of England|regions]], now used primarily for statistical purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network |url=http://www.gos.gov.uk/national |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606073647/http://www.gos.gov.uk/national |archive-date=6 June 2009 |access-date=3 July 2008 |publisher=Government Offices}}</ref> One of the regions, [[Greater London Authority|Greater London]], has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|1998 referendum]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of London government |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421023053/http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp |archive-date=21 April 2008 |access-date=4 October 2008 |publisher=Greater London Authority}}</ref> |
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[[Local government in Scotland]] is divided into [[subdivisions of Scotland|32 council areas]] with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of [[Glasgow]], Edinburgh, [[Aberdeen]] and [[Dundee]] are separate council areas, as is the [[Politics of the Highland council area|Highland Council]], which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007 |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222124635/http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2011 |access-date=2 August 2008 |publisher=Political Studies Association}}</ref> |
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[[Local government in Wales]] consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right.<ref name="unitary">{{Cite web |year=2014 |title=Unitary authorities |url=http://gov.wales/topics/localgovernment/local-authorities/?lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310210146/http://gov.wales/topics/localgovernment/local-authorities/?lang=en |archive-date=10 March 2015 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Welsh Government}}</ref> Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.<ref name="unitary" /> |
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[[Local government in Northern Ireland]] since 1973, has been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.<ref name="Devenport">{{Cite news |last=Devenport |first=Mark |date=18 November 2005 |title=NI local government set for shake-up |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4449092.stm |access-date=15 November 2008}}</ref> In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Foster announces the future shape of local government |date=13 March 2008 |publisher=Northern Ireland Executive |url=http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm |access-date=20 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725002254/http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008}}</ref> |
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=== Devolved governments === |
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{{Main|Devolution in the United Kingdom}} |
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{{Image frame|width=250|content=<div style="text-align: center;">{{Image label begin|image=United Kingdom countries.svg|link=|width=250|float=none}} |
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{{Image label small|x=0.625|y=1.2|scale=250|text =<big>{{flagicon|ENG}} [[England]]</big>}} |
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{{Image label small|x=0.375|y=0.7|scale=250|text=<big>{{flagicon|SCO}} [[Scotland]]</big>}} |
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{{Image label small|x=0.4|y=1.3|scale=250|text= <big>{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Wales]]</big>}} |
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{{Image label small|x=0.15|y=0.95|scale=250|text =<big>[[Northern Ireland|Northern<br />Ireland]]</big>}} |
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{{Image label end}}</div> |
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|caption= The four [[countries of the United Kingdom]]}} |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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! Country |
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! [[List of countries and dependencies by population|Population]] |
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! Total area |
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! [[Capital city|Capital]] |
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! [[List of legislatures by country|Parliament]] |
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! First Minister |
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|- |
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| {{flag|England}} |
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| 56,489,800 {{small|(2021)}} |
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| {{convert|130279|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=5}} |
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| [[London]] |
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| none |
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| none |
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|- |
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| {{flag|Scotland}} |
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| 5,436,600 {{small|(2022)}} |
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| {{convert|77933|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=6}} |
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| [[Edinburgh]] |
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| [[Scottish Parliament]] |
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| [[Humza Yousaf]] |
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|- |
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| {{flag|Wales}} |
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| 3,267,501 {{small|(2022)}} |
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| {{convert|20779|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=6}} |
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| [[Cardiff]] |
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| [[Senedd]] |
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| [[Mark Drakeford]] |
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|- |
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| [[Northern Ireland]] |
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| 1,903,100 {{small|(2021)}} |
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| {{convert|14130|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=6}} |
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| [[Belfast]] |
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| [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] |
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| vacant |
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|} |
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==== Scotland ==== |
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{{Main|Scottish Parliament|Scottish Government|Local government in Scotland}} |
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Since 1999, Scotland has had a devolved national [[Scottish Government|government]] and [[Scottish Parliament|legislature called the Scottish Parliament]]. The [[Scottish Government]] and [[Scottish Parliament|Parliament]] have wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically [[Reserved and excepted matters|reserved]] to the UK Parliament, including [[education in Scotland|education]], [[NHS Scotland|healthcare]], [[Scots law]] and [[Local government in Scotland|local government]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 April 1999 |title=Scotland's Parliament – powers and structures |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/scotland_99/the_scottish_parliament/310036.stm |access-date=21 October 2008}}</ref> Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an [[United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020|act of the UK parliament]] passed in 2020.{{refn|name=UKIM|<ref name="Keating21">{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=2 February 2021 |title=Taking back control? Brexit and the territorial constitution of the United Kingdom |journal=[[Journal of European Public Policy]] |location=Abingdon |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=6–7 |doi=10.1080/13501763.2021.1876156 |quote=The UK Internal Market Act gives ministers sweeping powers to enforce mutual recognition and non-discrimination across the four jurisdictions. Existing differences and some social and health matters are exempted but these are much less extensive than the exemptions permitted under the EU Internal Market provisions. Only after an amendment in the House of Lords, the Bill was amended to provide a weak and non-binding consent mechanism for amendments (equivalent to the Sewel Convention) to the list of exemptions. The result is that, while the devolved governments retain regulatory competences, these are undermined by the fact that goods and services originating in, or imported into, England can be marketed anywhere. |hdl-access=free |hdl=1814/70296 |s2cid=234066376}}</ref><ref name="KenMcEw21">{{Cite journal |last1=Kenny |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Kenny (political scientist) |last2=McEwen |first2=Nicola |author-link2=Nicola McEwen |date=1 March 2021 |title=Intergovernmental Relations and the Crisis of the Union |journal=Political Insight |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058211000996 |quote=That phase of joint working was significantly damaged by the UK Internal Market Act, pushed through by the Johnson government in December 2020...the Act diminishes the authority of the devolved institutions, and was vehemently opposed by them. |doi-access=free |s2cid=232050477}}</ref><ref name="WolffeDevol">{{Cite journal |last=Wolffe |first=W James |author-link=James Wolffe |date=7 April 2021 |title=Devolution and the Statute Book |url=https://academic.oup.com/slr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/slr/hmab003/6213886 |journal=[[Statute Law Review]] |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/slr/hmab003 |access-date=18 April 2021 |quote=the Internal Market Bill—a Bill that contains provisions which, if enacted, would significantly constrain, both legally and as a matter of practicality, the exercise by the devolved legislatures of their legislative competence; provisions that would be significantly more restrictive of the powers of the Scottish Parliament than either EU law or Articles 4 and 6 of the Acts of the Union...The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and the Internal Market Act 2020 notwithstanding that, in each case, all three of the devolved legislatures had withheld consent.}}</ref><ref name="Wincott21">{{Cite journal |last1=Wincott |first1=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Wincott |last2=Murray |first2=C. R. G. |last3=Davies |first3=Gregory |date=17 May 2021 |title=The Anglo-British imaginary and the rebuilding of the UK's territorial constitution after Brexit: unitary state or union state? |journal=Territory, Politics, Governance |location=Abingdon/Brighton |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]; [[Regional Studies Association]] |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=696–713 |doi=10.1080/21622671.2021.1921613 |quote=Taken as a whole, the Internal Market Act imposes greater restrictions upon the competences of the devolved institutions than the provisions of the EU Single Market which it replaced, in spite of pledges to use common frameworks to address these issues. [[David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead|Lord Hope]], responsible for many of the leading judgments relating to the first two decades of devolution, regarded the legislation's terms as deliberately confrontational: 'this Parliament can do what it likes, but a different approach is essential if the union is to hold together'. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="DouganMcEwen20">{{Cite report |url=https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/publications/uk-and-internal-market-devolution-and-union |title=UK and the Internal Market, Devolution and the Union |last1=Dougan |first1=Michael |last2=Hayward |first2=Katy |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]]; [[University of Aberdeen]] |pages=2–3 |last3=Hunt |first3=Jo |last4=McEwen |first4=Nicola |last5=McHarg |first5=Aileen |last6=Wincott |first6=Daniel |author-link=Michael Dougan |author-link2=Katy Hayward |access-date=16 October 2020 |author-link4=Nicola McEwen |author-link6=Daniel Wincott |department=Centre on Constitutional Change}}</ref><ref name="Dougan20Brief">{{Cite report |url=https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/law/2-research/eull/UKIM,Briefing,Paper,-,Prof,Michael,Dougan,15,September,2020.pdf |title=Briefing Paper. United Kingdom Internal Market Bill: Implications for Devolution |last=Dougan |first=Michael |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Liverpool]] |location=Liverpool |pages=4–5 |author-link=Michael Dougan |access-date=15 October 2020}}</ref><ref name=DouHu22>{{cite journal |last1=Dougan |first1=Michael |last2=Hunt |first2=Jo |last3=McEwen |first3=Nicola |last4=McHarg |first4=Aileen|author-link1=Michael Dougan|author-link3=Nicola McEwen|title=Sleeping with an Elephant: Devolution and the United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020 |journal=[[Law Quarterly Review]] |date=2022 |url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/35167/|location=London|publisher=[[Sweet & Maxwell]]|ssrn=4018581|via=[[Durham University|Durham Research Online]]|access-date=4 March 2022|quote=The Act has restrictive – and potentially damaging – consequences for the regulatory capacity of the devolved legislatures...This was not the first time since the Brexit referendum that the Convention had been set aside, but it was especially notable given that the primary purpose of the legislation was to constrain the capacity of the devolved institutions to use their regulatory autonomy...in practice, it constrains the ability of the devolved institutions to make effective regulatory choices for their territories in ways that do not apply to the choices made by the UK government and parliament for the English market.|issn=0023-933X}}</ref>}} The current [[Scottish Government]] is a [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Scottish Greens]] [[Coalition government|coalition]], led by [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] [[Humza Yousaf]], leader of the Scottish National Party. In 2014, the [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|Scottish independence referendum]] was held, with 55.3% voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7% voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. [[Local government in Scotland]] is divided into [[subdivisions of Scotland|32 council areas]] with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.<ref name="auto1"/> |
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==== Wales ==== |
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{{Main|Senedd|Welsh Government|Local government in Wales}} |
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Since 1999, Wales has a devolved national [[Welsh Government|government]] and legislature, known as the [[Senedd]]. Elections to the Senedd use the [[additional member system]]. They have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 April 1999 |title=Structure and powers of the Assembly |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/wales_99/the_welsh_assembly/309033.stm |access-date=21 October 2008}}</ref> The Senedd is able to legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament through [[Acts of Senedd Cymru]]. The current [[Welsh Government]] is [[Welsh Labour|Labour]], led by [[First Minister of Wales|First Minister]] [[Mark Drakeford]], who has been the First Minister since 2018. [[Local government in Wales]] consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. |
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==== Northern Ireland ==== |
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{{Main|Northern Ireland Assembly|Northern Ireland Executive|Local government in Northern Ireland|The Troubles}} |
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Since 1998, Northern Ireland has a devolved government, the [[Northern Ireland Executive|Executive]], and legislature, the [[Northern Ireland Assembly|Assembly]]. Elections to the Assembly use the [[single transferable vote]] system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland. The Executive is led by a [[diarchy]] representing [[Designated Unionist|unionist]] and [[Designated Nationalist|nationalist]] members of the Assembly.<ref name="northernireland1">{{Cite web |date=25 September 2015 |title=Your Executive |url=https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive |publisher=Northern Ireland Executive}}</ref> The [[Ireland|Island of Ireland]] has a turbulent and violent modern political history, a period referred to as [[the Troubles]]. The 1998 [[Good Friday Agreement]] acts as a ''de facto'' [[constitution]] for Northern Ireland. [[Local government in Northern Ireland]] since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities.<ref name="Devenport" /> |
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==== Constitutional arrangement ==== |
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The UK does not have a [[codified constitution]] and constitutional matters are not among the powers devolved to Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Under the doctrine of [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|parliamentary sovereignty]], the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burrows |first=N. |year=1999 |title=Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998 |journal=The Modern Law Review |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=241–260 [p. 249] |doi=10.1111/1468-2230.00203 |quote=The UK Parliament is sovereign and the Scottish Parliament is subordinate. The White Paper had indicated that this was to be the approach taken in the legislation. The Scottish Parliament is not to be seen as a reflection of the settled will of the people of Scotland or of popular sovereignty but as a reflection of its subordination to a higher legal authority. Following the logic of this argument, the power of the Scottish Parliament to legislate can be withdrawn or overridden...}}; {{Cite journal |last=Elliot |first=M. |year=2004 |title=United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=545–627, 553–554 |doi=10.1093/icon/2.3.545 |quote=Notwithstanding substantial differences among the schemes, an important common factor is that the UK Parliament has not renounced legislative sovereignty in relation to the three nations concerned. For example, the Scottish Parliament is empowered to enact primary legislation on all matters, save those in relation to which competence is explicitly denied ... but this power to legislate on what may be termed "devolved matters" is concurrent with the Westminster Parliament's general power to legislate for Scotland on any matter at all, including devolved matters ... In theory, therefore, Westminster may legislate on Scottish devolved matters whenever it chooses... |doi-access=free}}</ref> In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd, because these institutions were created by referendum decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gamble |first=A. |year=2006 |title=The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom |journal=Publius |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=19–35 [p. 29] |doi=10.1093/publius/pjj011 |quote=The British parliament has the power to abolish the Scottish parliament and the Welsh assembly by a simple majority vote in both houses, but since both were sanctioned by referenda, it would be politically difficult to abolish them without the sanction of a further vote by the people. In this way, several of the constitutional measures introduced by the Blair government appear to be entrenched and not subject to a simple exercise of parliamentary sovereignty at Westminster.}}</ref> The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the [[Government of Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meehan |first=E. |year=1999 |title=The Belfast Agreement – Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK's Devolution Programme |journal=Parliamentary Affairs |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 [p. 23] |doi=10.1093/pa/52.1.19 |quote=[T]he distinctive involvement of two governments in the Northern Irish problem means that Northern Ireland's new arrangements rest upon an intergovernmental agreement. If this can be equated with a treaty, it could be argued that the forthcoming distribution of power between Westminster and Belfast has similarities with divisions specified in the written constitutions of federal states...Although the Agreement makes the general proviso that Westminster's 'powers to make legislation for Northern Ireland' remains 'unaffected', without an explicit categorical reference to reserved matters, it may be more difficult than in Scotland or Wales for devolved powers to be repatriated. The retraction of devolved powers would not merely entail consultation in Northern Ireland backed implicitly by the absolute power of parliamentary sovereignty but also the renegotiation of an intergovernmental agreement.|doi-access=free }}</ref> The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative competence in economic areas through an act passed in 2020.<ref name=UKIM /> |
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=== Foreign relations === |
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{{Main|Foreign relations of the United Kingdom|Foreign policy of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:President Biden greets Prime Minister Sunak of the UK at the sidelines of the 2022 G-20 Bali Summit.jpg|thumb|UK Prime Minister [[Rishi Sunak]] greets US President [[Joe Biden]] at the 2022 G-20 Bali Summit.]] |
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The UK is a [[Big Five (United Nations)|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]], a member of [[NATO]], [[AUKUS]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[G7 finance ministers]], the [[G7 forum]], the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=May |first=Theresa |author-link=Theresa May |date=29 March 2017 |title=Prime Minister's letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50 |website= |via=Gov.uk}}</ref> The UK has the [[British Council]] which is a British organisation based in over 100 countries specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities. The UK is said to have a "[[Special Relationship]]" with the United States and a close partnership with France – the "[[Entente cordiale]]" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Swaine |first=Jon |date=13 January 2009 |title=Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/4226246/Barack-Obama-presidency-will-strengthen-special-relationship-says-Gordon-Brown.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 May 2011 |website=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |publication-place=[[London]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kirchner |first1=Emil Joseph |title=Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st century |last2=Sperling |first2=James |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-39162-7 |edition=illustrated |location=London |page=100 |language=en}}</ref> the [[Anglo-Portuguese Alliance]] is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a [[Common Travel Area]] and co-operate through the [[British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference]] and the [[British-Irish Council]]. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, [[official development assistance]] and military engagements.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Committee Office, House of Commons |date=19 February 2009 |title=DFID's expenditure on development assistance |url=http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmintdev/220/22007.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112222226/http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmintdev/220/22007.htm |archive-date=12 January 2013 |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref> Canada, Australia and New Zealand, all of which are former colonies of the British Empire which share King Charles as their head of state, are the most favourably viewed countries in the world by [[British people]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 July 2017 |title=Sharp Drop in World Views of US, UK: Global Poll – GlobeScan |url=https://globescan.com/sharp-drop-in-world-views-of-us-uk-global-poll/}}; {{Cite web |title=From the Outside In: G20 views of the UK before and after the EU referendum' |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/from_the_outside_in.pdf |publisher=British Council}}; {{Cite web |date=26 October 2020 |title=New Zealand is Britons' favourite country |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/travel/articles-reports/2020/10/26/new-zealand-britons-favourite-country}}</ref> |
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=== Dependencies === |
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{{Main|British Overseas Territories|Crown Dependencies|British Islands|List_of_current_heads_of_government_in_the_United_Kingdom_and_dependencies#Crown_dependencies|l4=List of leaders of British dependencies}} |
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The United Kingdom, the 14 British Overseas Territories<ref name="overseasterritories">{{Cite web |title=The UK Overseas Territories and their Governors |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9583/ |access-date=6 May 2023 |publisher=[[House of Commons Library]]}}</ref> and the three Crown Dependencies<ref>{{Cite web |title=Background briefing on the Crown Dependencies: Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man |url=http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/about/moj/our-responsibilities/Background_Briefing_on_the_Crown_Dependencies2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102104306/http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/about/moj/our-responsibilities/Background_Briefing_on_the_Crown_Dependencies2.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2019 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Ministry of Justice}}</ref> form 'one undivided Realm'.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bosque |first=Maria Mut |date=2022 |title=Questioning the current status of the British Crown Dependencies |url=https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/94160 |journal=Small States & Territories |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=55–70 |via=University of Malta}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite report |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9635/ |title=The separation of powers in the UK's Overseas Territories |last=Loft |first=Philip |date=1 November 2022 |publisher=House of Commons Library}}</ref> All parts of the realm are under the sovereignty of the [[The Crown|British Crown]], but the Territories and Dependencies are not part of the UK. This is distinct from the status of [[Commonwealth realm]]s, who have separate monarchies, but share the same monarch.<ref name=":4" /> |
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{{UK territories image map}} |
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The 14 British Overseas Territories are remnants of the British Empire: [[Anguilla]]; [[Bermuda]]; the [[British Antarctic Territory]]; the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]; the [[British Virgin Islands]]; the [[Cayman Islands]]; the [[Falkland Islands]]; [[Gibraltar]]; [[Montserrat]]; [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]; the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]; the [[Pitcairn Islands]]; [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]; and [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]] on the island of [[Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Overseas Territories |work=Gov.uk |publisher=Foreign & Commonwealth Office |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket%2FXcelerate%2FShowPage&c=Page&cid=1013618138295 |access-date=6 September 2010 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080205135910/http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1013618138295 |archive-date=5 February 2008}}</ref> British claims in Antarctica have limited international recognition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antarctica |access-date=26 December 2010 |publisher=CIA}}</ref> Collectively Britain's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of {{Convert|480000|sqnmi|sqmi km2}},<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-territories |title=Overseas Territories The Ministry of Defence's Contribution |date=1 March 2012 |publisher=Ministry of Defence |page=1 |access-date=5 April 2020}}</ref> with a total population of approximately 250,000.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmfaff/1464/1464.pdf |title=Global Britain and the British Overseas Territories: Resetting the relationship |date=13 February 2019 |publisher=House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee |page=5 |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627185942/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmfaff/1464/1464.pdf |archive-date=27 June 2020 }}</ref> The overseas territories also give the UK the world's fifth largest [[Exclusive economic zone of the United Kingdom|exclusive economic zone]] at {{Cvt|6,805,586|km2}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2020 |title=Written evidence submitted by The UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum |url=https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/16752/pdf/ |access-date=30 April 2023 |website=committees.parliament.uk |format=PDF |quote=By including the territories, the United Kingdom's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is the fifth largest in the world, at 6,805,586 km2.}}</ref> |
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The Crown Dependencies are possessions of [[the Crown]], as opposed to territories of the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Committee Office, House of Commons |title=House of Commons – Crown Dependencies – Justice Committee |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmjust/56/5604.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625201135/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmjust/56/5604.htm |archive-date=25 June 2012 |access-date=7 November 2010 |publisher=Publications.parliament.uk}}</ref> They comprise three independently administered jurisdictions: the Bailiwicks of [[Jersey]] and of [[Bailiwick of Guernsey|Guernsey]] in the English Channel, and the [[Isle of Man]] in the Irish Sea. By mutual agreement, the British Government manages the islands' foreign affairs and defence and the UK Parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf. Internationally, they are regarded as "territories for which the United Kingdom is responsible".<ref>[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/273891/crown-dependencies.pdf Fact sheet on the UK's relationship with the Crown Dependencies – gov.uk], Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 25 August 2014.</ref> The power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown ([[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Council]] or, in the case of the Isle of Man, in certain circumstances the Lieutenant-Governor).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Profile of Jersey |url=http://www.gov.je/ChiefMinister/International+Relations/Profile+of+Jersey.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902092534/http://www.gov.je/ChiefMinister/International%2BRelations/Profile%2Bof%2BJersey.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006 |access-date=31 July 2008 |publisher=[[States of Jersey]] |quote=The legislature passes primary legislation, which requires approval by The Queen in Council, and enacts subordinate legislation in many areas without any requirement for Royal Sanction and under powers conferred by primary legislation.}}</ref> Since 2005, each Crown dependency has had a [[List of current heads of government in the United Kingdom and dependencies#Crown Dependencies|Chief Minister]] as its [[head of government]].<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Chief Minister to meet Channel Islands counterparts – Isle of Man Public Services |date=29 May 2012 |publisher=Isle of Man Government |url=http://www.gov.im/lib/news/cso/chiefministertom.xml |access-date=8 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430195235/http://www.gov.im/lib/news/cso/chiefministertom.xml |archive-date=30 April 2013}}</ref> |
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=== Law and criminal justice === |
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{{Main|Law of the United Kingdom|Censorship in the United Kingdom|Crime in the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Middlesex Guildhall (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] is the final court of appeal for England, Wales, Northern Ireland and civil cases in Scotland.]] |
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The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as Article 19 of the [[Treaty of Union|1706 Treaty of Union]] provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=5 October 2008 |publisher=Scottish History Online}}</ref> Today the UK has three distinct [[Legal systems of the world|systems of law]]: [[English law]], [[Courts of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland law]] and [[Scots law]]. A new [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] came into being in October 2009 to replace the [[judicial functions of the House of Lords|Appellate Committee of the House of Lords]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 October 2009 |title=UK Supreme Court judges sworn in |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8283939.stm}}; {{Cite web |date=July 2003 |title=Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090117132005/http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=13 May 2013 |publisher=Department for Constitutional Affairs}}</ref> The [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the [[British Overseas Territories]] and the [[Crown Dependencies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Role of the JCPC |url=http://www.jcpc.uk/about/role-of-the-jcpc.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=Judicial Committee of the Privy Council}}</ref> |
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Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and [[Northern Ireland law]] are based on [[Common law|common-law]] principles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bainham |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AF303DEl0MkC&pg=PA298 |title=The international survey of family law: 1996 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |year=1998 |isbn=978-90-411-0573-8 |location=The Hague |page=298}}</ref> The [[courts of England and Wales]] are headed by the [[Senior Courts of England and Wales]], consisting of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], the [[High Court of Justice]] (for civil cases) and the [[Crown Court]] (for criminal cases).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Australian courts and comparative law |url=http://www.alpn.edu.au/node/66 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414202207/http://alpn.edu.au/node/66 |archive-date=14 April 2013 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Australian Law Postgraduate Network}}</ref> Scots law is a hybrid system based on common-law and [[Civil law (legal system)|civil-law]] principles. The chief courts are the [[Court of Session]], for civil cases,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Court of Session – Introduction |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731094308/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp |archive-date=31 July 2008 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Scottish Courts}}</ref> and the [[High Court of Justiciary]], for criminal cases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=High Court of Justiciary – Introduction |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912204821/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp |archive-date=12 September 2008 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Scottish Courts}}</ref> The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=House of Lords – Practice Directions and Standing Orders Applicable to Civil Appeals |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206120915/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm |archive-date=6 December 2013 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref> |
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Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66 per cent in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_419450.pdf|title=Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending June 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |website=UK Government Web Archive }}</ref> according to [[Crime statistics in the United Kingdom|crime statistics]]. The [[prison population of England and Wales]] has increased to 86,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 148 per 100,000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prison population figures: 2015 |date=8 January 2016 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/prison-population-figures-2015 |access-date=10 November 2015 |website=British Government}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Highest to Lowest - Prison Population Total |url=http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118142542/https://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total |archive-date=Nov 18, 2023 |website=World Prison Brief}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Prison Brief data |url=http://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106135950/https://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data |archive-date=Nov 6, 2023 |website=World Prison Brief}}</ref> |
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[[Same-sex marriage]] has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in [[Northern Ireland]] since 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wratten |first1=Marcus |title=Tom Allen to host vital new BBC show marking 10th anniversary of same-sex marriage |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2023/07/03/tom-allen-bbc-my-big-gay-wedding-same-sex-marriage/ |website=PinkNews |date=3 July 2023 |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in the United Kingdom|LGBT equality]] in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2023 |title=The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023 |url=https://www.asherfergusson.com/lgbtq-travel-safety/ |access-date=20 August 2023 |website=Asher & Lyric}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=R. Flores |first1=Andrew |title=Social Acceptance of LGBTI People in 175 Countries and Locations |url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/global-acceptance-index-lgbt/ |website=Williams Institute |access-date=11 September 2023}}</ref> |
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=== Military === |
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{{Main|British Armed Forces|Military history of the United Kingdom}} |
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{{Multiple image |
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| image1 = HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales meet at sea for the first time.jpg |
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| caption1 = [[HMS Queen Elizabeth]] and [[HMS Prince of Wales]] |
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| image2 = Royal Navy Destroyer HMS Defender (D36).jpg |
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| caption2 = Royal Navy Destroyer [[HMS Defender]] |
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| image3 = Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 MOD 45160575.jpg |
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| caption3 = Royal Air Force [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] Jet |
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| image4 = FV4034 Challenger 2 – TankFest 2017 (31403624768).jpg |
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| caption4 = British Army [[Challenger 2]] Main Battle Tank |
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}} |
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''[[British Armed Forces|His Majesty's Armed Forces]]'' consist of three professional service branches: the [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Marines]] (forming the [[Naval Service (United Kingdom)|Naval Service]]), the [[British Army]] and the [[Royal Air Force]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Defence |url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Home |access-date=21 February 2012 |publisher=Ministry of Defence}}</ref> The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] and controlled by the [[Defence Council of the United Kingdom|Defence Council]], chaired by the [[Secretary of State for Defence]]. The [[Commander-in-Chief]] is the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2012 |title=Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II |url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2012/march/speaker-addresses-hm-the-queen |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref> The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in [[NATO]], including the [[Allied Rapid Reaction Corps]], the [[Five Power Defence Arrangements]], [[RIMPAC]] and other worldwide coalition operations. [[Overseas military bases of the United Kingdom|Overseas garrisons]] and facilities are maintained in [[RAF Ascension Island|Ascension Island]], [[Mina Salman|Bahrain]], [[Military of Belize|Belize]], [[Military Forces based in Brunei|Brunei]], [[British Army Training Unit Suffield|Canada]], [[British Forces Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Diego Garcia]], the [[Military of the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]], [[British Forces Germany|Germany]], [[British Forces Gibraltar|Gibraltar]], [[British Army Training Unit Kenya|Kenya]], [[Oman]], [[Al Udeid Air Base|Qatar]] and [[Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=House of Commons Hansard |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/vo050221/text/50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309114107/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=%2Fpa%2Fcm200405%2Fcmhansrd%2Fvo050221%2Ftext%2F50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0 |archive-date=9 March 2009 |access-date=23 October 2008 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite web |title=House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 17 Jun 2013 (pt 0002) |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130617/text/130617w0002.htm#13061746000236 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214025754/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130617/text/130617w0002.htm#13061746000236 |archive-date=14 February 2015 |access-date=4 March 2015 |publisher=Publications.parliament.uk}}</ref> |
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According to sources which include the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] and the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]], the UK has either the fourth- or the fifth-highest [[List of countries by military expenditures|military expenditure]]. Total defence spending amounts to 2.0 per cent of national GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2016 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/Trends-world-military-expenditure-2016.pdf |access-date=26 April 2017 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}</ref> Following the end of the [[Cold War]], defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.<ref>''UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''. Office for National Statistics. p. 89.</ref> |
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== Economy == |
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{{Main|Economy of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:London Skyline (125508655).jpeg|thumb|[[London]] is the largest [[urban economy]] in Europe{{cn|date=January 2024}} and, alongside [[New York City|New York]], the city in the world most integrated with the [[World economy|global economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |website=GaWC |title=The World According to GaWC 2020 |url=https://www.lboro.ac.uk/microsites/geography/gawc/world2020t.html |access-date=3 June 2023 |publisher=Loughborough University }}</ref>]] |
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The UK has a partially regulated [[market economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2011 |title=Principles for Economic Regulation |url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/better-regulation/docs/p/11-795-principles-for-economic-regulation |access-date=1 May 2011 |publisher=Department for Business, Innovation & Skills |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517134052/http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/better-regulation/docs/p/11-795-principles-for-economic-regulation |archive-date= May 17, 2011 }}</ref> Based on market [[exchange rate]]s, the UK is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|sixth-largest economy]] in the world and the [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)|second-largest]] in Europe by nominal GDP. |
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[[File:Bank-of-England.jpg|thumb|The [[Bank of England]] is the [[central bank]] of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based.]] |
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The United Kingdom uses the [[pound sterling]], currently the fourth most-traded currency in the [[foreign exchange market]] and the world's fourth-largest [[reserve currency]] (after the [[United States dollar]], [[euro]], and [[yen]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title= World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves |url=https://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=41175 |access-date=10 October 2021 |website=IMF Data |language=en}}</ref> The pound sterling was the best performing currency in the first quarter of 2023, gaining 2.5pc against the dollar, ahead of all other G10 economies.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 April 2023 |title=Pound surges to become best performing currency this year |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2023/03/31/ftse-100-markets-live-news-housing-prices-net-zero-virgin/ |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230722073651/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2023/03/31/ftse-100-markets-live-news-housing-prices-net-zero-virgin/ |archive-date= Jul 22, 2023 }}</ref> [[London]] is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a global market share of 38.1% in 2022<ref>{{Cite web |title=BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2022 – UK Data |url=https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/news/2022/october/bis-triennial-survey-of-foreign-exchange-and-over-the-counter-interest-rate-derivatives-markets |date= 27 October 2022 |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=Bank of England}}</ref> of the daily $7.5 trillion global turnover.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Global FX trading hits record $7.5 trln a day – BIS survey |date=27 October 2022 |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/us/global-fx-trading-hits-record-75-trln-day-bis-survey-2022-10-27/ |access-date=21 February 2023 |work=Reuters|last1=Jones |first1=Marc |last2=John |first2=Alun }}</ref> [[HM Treasury]], led by the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], is responsible for developing and executing the government's [[public finance]] policy and [[economic policy]]. The [[Bank of England]] is the UK's [[central bank]] and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. |
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The [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] made up around 80% of the UK's [[Gross value added|GVA]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hutton |first=Georgina |date=6 December 2022 |title=Industries in the UK |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8353/ |access-date=31 January 2023 |website=UK Parliament: House of Commons Library}}</ref> As of 2022, the UK is the world's [[List of countries by service exports|second-largest exporter of services]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Service exports (BoP, current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> London is one of the world's largest financial centres, ranking second in the world in the [[Global Financial Centres Index]] in 2022. London also has the [[List of cities by GDP|largest city GDP]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025 |url=http://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/Media-Library/Global-city-GDP-rankings-2008-2025-61a.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428032945/http://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/Media-Library/Global-city-GDP-rankings-2008-2025-61a.aspx |archive-date=28 April 2011 |access-date=16 November 2010 |publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers}}</ref> Edinburgh ranks 17th in the world, and sixth in Western Europe in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2020.<ref name="GFCI 27 Rank – Long Finance">{{Cite web |title=GFCI 27 Rank – Long Finance |url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-27-explore-data/gfci-27-rank |access-date=29 August 2020 |website=www.longfinance.net}}</ref> [[Tourism in the United Kingdom|Tourism]] is very important to the British economy; London was named as Europe's most popular destination for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/london-best-europe-city-tripadvisor-2022-b1996028.html |title=London named Europe's most popular destination for 2022 |website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |date=19 January 2022 |access-date=11 March 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311142939/https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/london-best-europe-city-tripadvisor-2022-b1996028.html }} (last checked 11 March 2023)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fortune.com/2023/04/25/king-charles-coronation-tourists-money-london-british-economy/ |title=King Charles' coronation is bringing millions of tourists and a cash infusion to London but it probably won't save the British economy |website=[[fortune.com]] |date=25 April 2023 |access-date=9 May 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502144950/https://fortune.com/2023/04/25/king-charles-coronation-tourists-money-london-british-economy/ }}</ref> The [[creative industries]] accounted for 5.9% of the UK's GVA in 2019, having grown by 43.6% in real terms from 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DCMS Economic Estimates 2019 (provisional): Gross Value Added |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-gross-value-added/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-provisional-gross-value-added |access-date=31 January 2023 |website=gov.uk}}</ref> Creative industries contributed more than £111bn to the UK economy in 2018, growth in the sector is more than five times larger than growth across the UK economy as a whole as reported in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2020 |title=UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uks-creative-industries-contributes-almost-13-million-to-the-uk-economy-every-hour |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> [[Lloyd's of London]] is the world's largest [[insurance]] and [[reinsurance]] market and is located in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lloyd's of London – value proposition |url=https://www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/value-proposition-coverholder |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227100951/https://www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/value-proposition-coverholder |archive-date=27 February 2023|website=Lloyd's of London}}</ref> [[WPP plc]], the world's biggest advertising company, is also based in the UK. |
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[[File:2019 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera Volante 5.2.jpg|thumb|[[Aston Martin]] manufacture vehicles in [[Gaydon]], England.]] |
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The [[Automotive industry in the United Kingdom|automotive industry]] employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2022 of £67 billion, generating £27 billion of exports (10% of the UK's total export of goods). In 2022, the UK produced around 775,000 passenger vehicles and 101,600 commercial vehicles, including luxury cars such as [[Rolls-Royce Motor Cars|Rolls-Royce]], [[Bentley]] and [[Range Rover]]. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2022 around 1.5 million engines were produced.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smmt.co.uk/industry-topics/uk-automotive/ |title=UK Automotive |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher= The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders|access-date= 14 November 2023|quote=}}</ref> It is also the world's [[List of countries by engine exports|fourth-largest exporter of engines]], as of 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Combustion Engines |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/combustion-engines |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity |language=en}}</ref> The UK [[auto racing|motorsport]] industry employs more than 40,000 people, comprises around 4,300 companies and has an annual turnover of around £10 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2020 |title=UK motorsport industry in pole position for F1's 70th anniversary |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-motorsport-industry-in-pole-position-for-f1s-70th-anniversary |access-date=19 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> 7 of the 10 Formula One teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from [[McLaren Automotive|McLaren]], [[Aston Martin]] and [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]]. |
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The [[Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom|aerospace industry of the UK]] is the second largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tovey |first=Alan |date=29 June 2016 |title=Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> The [[British space programme|UK space industry]] was worth £17.5bn in 2020/21 and employed 48,800 people. Since 2012, the number of space organisations has grown on average nearly 21% per year, with 1,293 organisations reported in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Size & Health of the UK Space Industry 2022 Summary Report |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2022/size-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2022 |access-date=1 April 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2021 |title=Size and Health of the UK Space Industry 2021 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2021/size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2021 |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> The [[UK Space Agency]] has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6 billion in space related projects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-to-support-space-exploration-using-moon-resources-and-nuclear-power |title=New funding to support space exploration using Moon resources and nuclear power |access-date=11 March 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311195622/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-to-support-space-exploration-using-moon-resources-and-nuclear-power }} <!-- (last checked 2023-03-11) --></ref> |
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The [[Agriculture in the United Kingdom|agriculture industry]] is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 per cent of food needs with less than 1.6 per cent of the labour force (535,000 workers).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agriculture in the United Kingdom |url=http://archive.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/general/auk/documents/AUK-2009.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105174314/http://archive.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/general/auk/documents/AUK-2009.pdf |archive-date=5 January 2012 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs}}</ref> Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. It is also rich in a variety of natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mines/coal/home.html |title=Coal |website=BGS Minerals UK |access-date=7 July 2015}}</ref> |
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The United Kingdom has among the highest levels of [[Income inequality in the United Kingdom|income inequality]] in [[Europe]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=House of Commons Research Briefing on Income inequality in the UK. |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7484/ |website=UK Parliament}}</ref> and the [[OECD]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inequality – Income inequality – OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629183322/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-date=29 June 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=theOECD |language=en}}</ref> and is one of the most [[North–South divide in the United Kingdom|regionally unequal]] high-income countries in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2023 |title=How to tackle the UK's regional economic inequality: Focus on STEM, transport, and innovation |url=https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/how-tackle-uks-regional-economic-inequality-focus-stem-transport-and-innovation |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=CEPR |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Why Britain is more geographically unequal than any other rich country |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/britain/2020/07/30/why-britain-is-more-geographically-unequal-than-any-other-rich-country |access-date=1 July 2023 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> |
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=== Science and technology === |
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{{Main|Science and technology in the United Kingdom|Telecommunications in the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Cambridge Science Park Napp.jpg|thumb|[[Silicon Fen|Cambridge]] is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=WIPO |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |website=www.wipo.int |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2022 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |access-date=16 November 2022}}; {{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=[[United Nations]] |language=en}}; {{Cite web |title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation? |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en}}; {{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2019 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en}}; {{Cite web |title=RTD – Item |url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898 |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>]] |
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England and Scotland were leading centres of the [[Scientific Revolution]] from the 17th century.<ref>Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), ''Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution''. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. {{ISBN|978-0-521-34804-1}}.</ref> The United Kingdom led the [[Industrial Revolution]] from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.<ref>Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). ''Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964''. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. {{OCLC|474197910}}</ref> Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include [[Isaac Newton]], whose [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and illumination of [[gravitation|gravity]] have been seen as a keystone of modern science;<ref>Burtt, E.A. (2003) 1924.[https://books.google.com/books?id=G9WBMa1Rz_kC&pg=PA207 ''The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science'']. Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. {{ISBN|978-0-486-42551-1}}.</ref> from the 19th century [[Charles Darwin]], whose theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who formulated classical [[electromagnetic theory]]; and more recently [[Stephen Hawking]], who advanced major theories in the fields of [[cosmology]], [[quantum gravity]] and the investigation of [[black holes]].<ref>Hatt, C. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC ''Scientists and Their Discoveries'']. London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. {{ISBN|978-0-237-53195-9}}.</ref> |
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The [[Department for Science, Innovation and Technology]] (DSIT) is responsible for helping to encourage, develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in [[Universities in the United Kingdom|British universities]], with many establishing [[science park]]s to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.<ref>Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). ''Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes''. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. {{ISBN|978-0-415-10015-1}}.</ref> In 2022 the UK retained its number one spot for technology in Europe reaching a combined market value of $1 trillion. Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe |url=https://brainstation.io/magazine/london-technology-capital-of-europe-100-unicorns |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=BrainStation |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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The UK was ranked fourth in the [[Global Innovation Index]] 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023, which is based on around 80 indicators, including measures of the political environment, education, infrastructure and knowledge creation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=2023-10-17 |website=www.wipo.int |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> During 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (for both). The UK ranked 1st in the world for Field-Weighted Citation Impact.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International comparison of the UK research base, 2022 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305235208/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023}} (last checked 11 March 2023)</ref> Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the ''[[Royal Society]]'', ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the ''[[BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' and ''[[The Lancet]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCook, Alison |year=2006 |title=Is peer review broken? |url=http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |journal=The Scientist |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816230933/http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |archive-date=16 August 2011 |access-date=22 June 2011}}</ref> |
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=== Transport === |
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{{Main|Transport in the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:An LNER Azuma train on the East Coast Railway Line, geograph 6275180 by Walter Baxter.jpg|thumb|A high-speed [[East Coast Main Line]] train in [[Northumberland]]]] |
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A radial road network totals {{Convert|29145|mi|km}} of main roads, {{Convert|2173|mi|km}} of motorways and {{Convert|213750|mi|km}} of paved roads.<ref name="factbook" /> The [[M25 motorway|M25]], encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Joe |url=https://archive.org/details/readingeveryday00mora |title=Reading the Everyday |date=16 November 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-37216-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readingeveryday00mora/page/n107 95] |url-access=limited}}</ref> In 2022, there were a total of 40.8 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.<ref name="Transport stats 2022">{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Freddie |title=RAC foundation traffic stats |url=https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/mobility#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20Kingdom%2C%20there,the%20end%20of%20September%202022.}}</ref> |
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The UK has an extensive railway network of {{Convert|10072|mi|0|abbr=out}}. In Great Britain, the [[British Rail]] network was [[privatisation of British Rail|privatised]] between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers. The UK was ranked eighth among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sylvain Duranton |last2=Agnès Audier |last3=Joël Hazan |last4=Mads Peter Langhorn |last5=Vincent Gauche |date=18 April 2017 |title=The 2017 European Railway Performance Index |url=https://www.bcg.com/en-ch/publications/2017/transportation-travel-tourism-2017-european-railway-performance-index.aspx |publisher=Boston Consulting Group}}</ref> [[High Speed 2]] (HS2) is a new high speed railway under construction linking up London, the Midlands, the North and Scotland, serving over 25 stations, including eight of Britain's 10 largest cities and connecting around 30 million people, capable of speeds of up to 225 mph.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is HS2 |url=https://www.hs2.org.uk/what-is-hs2 |website=HS2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=HS2 Trains |url=https://www.hs2.org.uk/building-hs2/trains/ |website=HS2}}</ref> [[Crossrail]], which was renamed the [[Elizabeth line]] in 2016, in honour of Queen Elizabeth II, opened in 2022. It was Europe's largest construction project at the time and will bring in an estimated £42 billion to the UK economy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 January 2012 |title=Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16289051}}; {{Cite news |last=Leftly |first=Mark |date=29 August 2010 |title=Crossrail delayed to save £1bn |work=The Independent on Sunday |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/crossrail-delayed-to-save-1631bn-2064629.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Crossrail to become the Elizabeth line in honour of Her Majesty the Queen |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/february/crossrail-to-become-the-elizabeth-line-in-honour-of-her-majesty-the-queen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225110413/https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/february/crossrail-to-become-the-elizabeth-line-in-honour-of-her-majesty-the-queen|archive-date=25 February 2023|website=Transport for London}}</ref> |
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[[File:Heathrow Terminal 5C Iwelumo-1.jpg|thumb|[[Airports of London|London]] has the [[List of busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic|busiest city airport system]] in the world.]] |
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[[Great British Railways]] is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee [[rail transport in Great Britain]]. In 2014, there were 5.2 billion bus journeys in the UK, 2.4 billion of which were in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bus statistics |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/bus-statistics |website=GOV.UK|date=26 April 2023 }}</ref> The red [[Double-decker bus|double-decker]] bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Collection |url=http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/index.html |access-date=16 August 2014 |publisher=icons.org.uk}}</ref> The [[London Buses|London bus network]] is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about six million passengers on over 700 different routes making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe.<ref>[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/1548.aspx London Buses], Transport for London. Accessed 10 May 2007.</ref> |
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In the year from October 2009 to September 2010, [[List of airports in the United Kingdom and the British Crown Dependencies|UK airports]] handled a total of 211.4 million passengers.<ref name="caastats">{{Cite web |title=Size of Reporting Airports October 2009 – September 2010 |url=http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/201009/Table_01_Size_of_UK_Airports.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504014257/http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/201009/Table_01_Size_of_UK_Airports.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2012 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority}}</ref> In that period the three largest airports were [[London Heathrow Airport]] (65.6 million passengers), [[Gatwick Airport]] (31.5 million passengers) and [[London Stansted Airport]] (18.9 million passengers).<ref name="caastats" /> London Heathrow Airport, located {{Convert|15|mi|km|}} west of the capital, is the world's second busiest airport by [[World's busiest airports by international passenger traffic|international passenger traffic]] and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world;<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 June 2008 |title=Heathrow 'needs a third runway' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7472432.stm |access-date=17 October 2008}}; {{Cite press release |title=Statistics: Top 30 World airports |date=July 2008 |publisher=Airports Council International |url=http://www.aci.aero/aci/aci/file/Press%20Releases/2008/TOP30_International%20Passengers_2007.pdf |access-date=15 October 2008}}</ref> it is the hub for the UK flag carrier [[British Airways]], as well as [[Virgin Atlantic]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 October 2008 |title=BMI being taken over by Lufthansa |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7697261.stm |access-date=23 December 2009}}</ref> |
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=== Energy === |
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{{Main|Energy in the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Ardrossan's fan club. - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|Wind turbines overlooking [[Ardrossan]] in Scotland. The UK is [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy]], and wind power production is its fastest-growing supply.]] |
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In 2021, the UK was the world's 14th-largest consumer of energy and the 22nd-largest producer.<ref name="United Kingdom Energy Profile">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom Energy Profile |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/GBR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228165225/https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/GBR |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref> The UK is home to many large energy companies, including two of the six major oil and gas companies – [[BP]] and [[Shell plc|Shell]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mason |first=Rowena |date=24 October 2009 |title=Let the battle begin over black gold |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}; {{Cite news |last=Heath |first=Michael |date=26 November 2010 |title=RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term |work=Bloomberg |location=New York |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-25/rba-s-stevens-says-inflation-unlikely-to-fall-much-further.html |url-status=live |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120722062837/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-25/rba-s-stevens-says-inflation-unlikely-to-fall-much-further.html |archive-date=22 July 2012}}</ref> |
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The total of all renewable electricity sources provided 43% of the electricity generated in the UK in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 June 2021 |title=How much of our energy currently comes from renewable sources? |work=National Grid |url=https://www.nationalgrid.com/stories/energy-explained/how-much-uks-energy-renewable |access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref> The UK is [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy]], and wind power production is the country's fastest-growing supply; in 2022, 26.8% of the UK's total electricity was generated by wind power.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 January 2023 |title=Britain produced record amount of wind power in 2022, National Grid says |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/britain-produced-record-amount-wind-power-2022-national-grid-2023-01-06/ |access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref> The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of Yorkshire.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 June 2021 |title=Wind energy in the UK: June 2021 |work=UK Government |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/articles/windenergyintheuk/june2021 |access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref> |
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In 2023, the UK had 9 nuclear reactors normally generating about 15 per cent of the UK's electricity.<ref name="coal-ref" /> Unlike Germany and Japan, there are two reactors under construction and more planned.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2013 |title=Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214061431/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html |archive-date=14 February 2013 |access-date=9 April 2013 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nuclear energy: What you need to know |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/nuclear-energy-what-you-need-to-know |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228181113/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/nuclear-energy-what-you-need-to-know |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> In the late 1990s, nuclear power plants contributed around 25 per cent of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK government is investing in [[Small Modular Reactors]] and [[Nuclear reactor#Future and developing technologies|Advanced Modular Reactors]] research and development. |
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In 2021, the UK produced 935 thousand [[Oil barrel|barrels]] per day (bbl/d) of oil (and other liquids) and consumed 1,258 thousand bbl/d.<ref name="United Kingdom Energy Profile" /> Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.<ref name="eiaoil">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom – Oil |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/United_Kingdom/Oil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812175554/http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=UK |archive-date=12 August 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref> {{As of|2020|alt=In 2020}}, the UK had around 2 billion barrels of proven [[North Sea oil|crude oil reserves]].<ref name="eiaoil" /> |
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In 2021, the UK was the 21st-largest producer of [[natural gas]] in the world.<ref name="eiagas">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom – Natural Gas |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/United_Kingdom/NaturalGas.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416085105/http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=UK |archive-date=16 April 2011 |access-date=9 March 2011 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref> Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.<ref name="eiagas" /> In 2020, the UK produced 1.8 million tonnes of coal falling 91% in 10 years.<ref name="coal-ref">{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228175735/https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom.aspx |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}}</ref> In 2020 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 26 million tonnes.<ref name="coal-ref" /> The UK [[Coal Authority]] has stated that there is a potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through [[underground coal gasification]] (UCG) or '[[Hydraulic fracturing|fracking']],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 April 2006 |title=Coal Reserves in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.coal.gov.uk/media//860AD/Response%20to%20Energy%20Review%20-%20Appendix%202.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090104054403/http://www.coal.gov.uk/media//860AD/Response%20to%20Energy%20Review%20-%20Appendix%202.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2009 |access-date=5 July 2011 |publisher=The Coal Authority}}</ref> and based on current UK coal consumption, such reserves could last between 200 and 400 years.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 October 2007 |title=Expert predicts 'coal revolution' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7046981.stm |access-date=23 September 2008}}</ref> |
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=== Water supply and sanitation === |
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{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom}} |
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Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96 per cent of households are connected to the sewer network.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69582/pb6655-uk-sewage-treatment-020424.pdf |title=Sewage Treatment in the UK |publisher=DEFRA |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |date=March 2022 |page=3 |id=PB 6655 |access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref> According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 [[megalitre]]s per day in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environment Agency |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/data/112185.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125040346/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/data/112185.aspx |archive-date=25 November 2009}}</ref> |
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In England and Wales water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, [[Scottish Water]]. In Northern Ireland water and sewerage services are also provided by a single public entity, [[Northern Ireland Water]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.niwater.com/about |access-date=29 August 2020 |publisher=niwater.com}}</ref> |
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== Demographics == |
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{{Main|Demography of the United Kingdom|British people|Ceremonial counties of England}} |
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In the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 census]] the total population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775.<ref name="2011census">{{Cite web |date=27 March 2011 |title=2011 Census: Population Estimates for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf |access-date=18 December 2012 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> It is the [[List of European countries by population|fourth-largest]] in Europe (after Russia, Germany and France), the fifth-largest in the Commonwealth and the [[List of countries by population|22nd-largest]] in the world. In mid-2014 and mid-2015 net long-term international migration contributed more to population growth. In mid-2012 and mid-2013 natural change contributed the most to population growth.<ref name="pop2015">{{Cite web |date=23 June 2016 |title=Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Mid-2015 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased by an average annual rate of approximately 0.7 per cent.<ref name="2011census" /> The 2011 census also showed that, over the previous 100 years, the proportion of the population aged 0–14 fell from 31 per cent to 18 per cent, and the proportion of people aged 65 and over rose from 5 to 16 per cent.<ref name="2011census" /> In 2018 the [[median age]] of the UK population was 41.7 years.<ref>{{Citation |title=World Factbook EUROPE: United Kingdom |date=12 July 2018 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom |work=[[The World Factbook]]}}</ref> |
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England's population in 2011 was 53 million, representing some 84 per cent of the UK total.<ref name="2011 UK censuses">{{Cite web |title=2011 UK censuses |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/census/2011/uk-census/index.html |access-date=18 December 2012 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 420 people per square kilometre in mid-2015,<ref name="pop2015" /> with a particular concentration in London and the south-east.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Urmee |date=16 September 2008 |title=England is most crowded country in Europe |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918221002/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html |archive-date=18 September 2008}}</ref> The 2011 census put Scotland's population at 5.3 million,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carrell, Severin |date=17 December 2012 |title=Scotland's population at record high |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/dec/17/scotland-population-record-high |access-date=18 December 2012 |location=London |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> Wales at 3.06 million and Northern Ireland at 1.81 million.<ref name="2011 UK censuses" /> |
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In 2017 the average [[total fertility rate]] (TFR) across the UK was 1.74 children born per woman.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vital statistics: population and health reference tables |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/vitalstatisticspopulationandhealthreferencetables |access-date=6 March 2018 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> While a rising birth rate is contributing to population growth, it remains considerably below the [[baby boom]] peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Boseley |first=Sarah |date=14 July 2008 |title=The question: What's behind the baby boom? |page=3 |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/jul/14/familyandrelationships.women |access-date=28 August 2009}}</ref> or the high of 6.02 children born per woman in 1815,<ref>{{Citation |last=Max Roser |title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries |date=2014 |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GBR |work=[[Our World in Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705121623/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GBR |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=5 July 2019 }}</ref> below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vital Statistics: Population and Health Reference Tables (February 2014 Update): Annual Time Series Data |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/vital-statistics--population-and-health-reference-tables/spring-2014-update/annual-table.xls |access-date=27 April 2014 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]]}}</ref> In 2011, 47.3 per cent of births in the UK were to unmarried women.<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&plugin=0&language=en&pcode=tps00018 Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table]. Eurostat (26 February 2013). Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref> The [[Office for National Statistics]] reported in 2015 that out of the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 per cent identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (2.0 per cent of males and 1.5 per cent of females); 4.5 per cent of respondents responded with "other", "I don't know", or did not respond.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2016 |title=Sexual identity, UK: 2015 – Experimental Official Statistics on sexual identity in the UK in 2015 by region, sex, age, marital status, ethnicity and NS-SEC |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/sexuality/bulletins/sexualidentityuk/2015 |access-date=19 January 2017 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]]}}</ref> The number of [[transgender]] people in the UK was estimated to be between 65,000 and 300,000 by research between 2001 and 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research report 27: Trans research review |url=http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/about-us/our-work/key-projects/trans-inequalities-reviewed/introduction-to-the-review |website=equalityhumanrights.com |page=v}}</ref> |
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{{Largest Urban Areas of the United Kingdom}} |
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=== Ethnicity === |
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{{Main|Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom}} |
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Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be [[Genetic history of the British Isles|descended from the various ethnic groups]] that settled there before the 12th century: the [[Celts]], Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the [[Normans]]. [[Welsh people]] could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 June 2012 |title=Welsh people could be most ancient in UK, DNA suggests |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-18489735 |access-date=28 April 2013}}</ref> The UK has a history of non-white immigration with [[Liverpool]] having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade. During this period it is estimated the Afro-Caribbean population of Great Britain was 10,000 to 15,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 January 2011 |title=Victoria and Albert Museum Black Presence |url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/s/silver-service-slavery-the-black-presence-in-the-white-home/}}</ref> which later declined due to the abolition of slavery.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Winder |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ORcaQIgdcEC&q=combed&pg=PT94 |title=Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain |year=2010 |publisher=Little, Brown Book |isbn=978-0-7481-2396-4}}; {{Cite book |last=Costello |first=Ray |title=Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918 |publisher=Picton Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-873245-07-1 |location=Liverpool}}</ref> The UK also has the oldest [[British Chinese|Chinese]] community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community |url=http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724204513/http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369 |archive-date=24 July 2009 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Chambré Hardman Trust}}</ref> {{As of|2011|alt=In [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011]]}}, 87.2 per cent of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8 per cent of the UK population identify themselves as of one of an [[minority group|ethnic minority]] group.<ref name="ethnicity2011">{{Cite web |date=11 October 2013 |title=2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-and-quick-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-the-united-kingdom---part-1/rft-ks201uk.xls |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> |
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{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |
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|- |
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! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|Ethnic group |
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! colspan="2"|Population (absolute) |
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! colspan="2" |Population (per cent) |
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|- |
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! 2001 |
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! 2011 |
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!2001<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 January 2004 |title=Population size: 7.9 per cent from a non-White ethnic group |publisher=Office for National Statistics |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=455 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040619124235/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=455 |archive-date=19 June 2004}}</ref> |
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! 2011<ref name="ethnicity2011">{{Cite web |date=11 October 2013 |title=2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-and-quick-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-the-united-kingdom---part-1/rft-ks201uk.xls |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|White |
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| 54,153,898 |
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|55,010,359 |
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|92.1% |
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|87.1% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|White: Gypsy, Traveller and {{Nowrap|Irish Traveller}}{{Efn|The 2011 Census recorded Gypsies and Travellers as a separate ethnic group for the first time.}} |
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|– |
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|63,193 |
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|– |
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| 0.1% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left" rowspan="5"|Asian and Asian British |
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| style="text-align:left"|Indian |
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| 1,053,411 |
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| 1,451,862 |
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|1.8% |
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| 2.3% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left"|Pakistani |
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| 747,285 |
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| 1,174,983 |
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|1.3% |
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| 1.9% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left"|Bangladeshi |
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| 283,063 |
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| 451,529 |
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|0.5% |
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| 0.7% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left"|Chinese |
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| 247,403 |
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| 433,150 |
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|0.4% |
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| 0.7% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left"|Other Asian |
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| 247,664 |
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| 861,815 |
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|0.4% |
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| 1.4% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Black, African, Caribbean and Black British{{Efn|In the 2011 Census, for the purpose of harmonising results to make them comparable across the UK, the ONS includes individuals in Scotland who classified themselves in the "African" category (29,638 people), which in the Scottish version of the census is separate from "Caribbean or Black" (6,540 people),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Table KS201SC – Ethnic group: All people |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095926/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=28 April 2015 |publisher=National Records of Scotland}}</ref> in this "Black or Black British" category. The ONS note that "the African categories used in Scotland could potentially capture White/Asian/Other African in addition to Black identities".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2011 |title=Ethnic group |url=http://ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/measuring-equality/equality/ethnic-nat-identity-religion/ethnic-group/index.html |access-date=27 April 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref>}} |
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| 1,148,738 |
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| 1,904,684 |
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|2.0% |
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| 3.0% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Mixed or multiple ethnic groups |
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| 677,117 |
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| 1,250,229 |
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|1.2% |
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| 2.0% |
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|- |
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|style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Other ethnic groups |
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| 230,615 |
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| 580,374 |
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|0.4% |
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| 0.9% |
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|- |
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!style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Total |
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!style="text-align:right"|58,789,194 |
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!style="text-align:right"|63,182,178 |
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!style="text-align:right"|100.0% |
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!style="text-align:right"|100.0% |
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|} |
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Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4 per cent of London's population and 37.4 per cent of [[Leicester]]'s was estimated to be non-white {{As of|lc=y|2005|06|alt=in 2005}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): London |url=http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do;jsessionid=ac1f930dce6eace0153cf12440ca609dc762c8ae598.e38OaNuRbNuSbi0Ma3aNaxiQbNiLe6fznA5Pp7ftolbGmkTy?a=3&b=276743&c=London&d=13&e=13&g=325264&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1201351285750 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/68e5HAPQg?url=http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do;jsessionid=ac1f930dce6eace0153cf12440ca609dc762c8ae598.e38OaNuRbNuSbi0Ma3aNaxiQbNiLe6fznA5Pp7ftolbGmkTy?a=3&b=276743&c=London&d=13&e=13&g=325264&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1201351285750 |archive-date=23 June 2012 |access-date=23 April 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}; {{Cite web |title=Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): Leicester |url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=276827&c=Leicester&d=13&e=13&g=394575&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1208962134759&enc=1&dsFamilyId=1812 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505032447/http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=276827&c=Leicester&d=13&e=13&g=394575&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1208962134759&enc=1&dsFamilyId=1812 |archive-date=5 May 2012 |access-date=23 April 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> whereas less than 5 per cent of the populations of [[North East England]], Wales and the [[South West England|South West]] were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census 2001 – Ethnicity and religion in England and Wales |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/commentaries/ethnicity.asp |access-date=23 April 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> {{As of|2016|alt=In 2016}}, 31.4 per cent of primary and 27.9 per cent of secondary pupils at [[state school]]s in England were members of an ethnic minority.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/schools-pupils-and-their-characteristics-january-2016 |title=Schools, pupils and their characteristics: January 2016 |date=28 June 2016 |publisher=Department for Education |page=8 |id=SFR 20/2016 |format=PDF}}</ref> |
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=== Languages === |
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{{Main|Languages of the United Kingdom}} |
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The [[English language]] is the official and most spoken language of the United Kingdom that originated from [[England]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=English language – Government, citizens and rights |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=23 August 2011 |website=[[Directgov]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/141540053/Status_OA_Feb_2018.pdf |title=Official status of languages in the UK and Ireland |publisher=Queen's University, Belfast |last=Mac Sithigh |first=Daithí |journal=Common Law World Review |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=77–102 |date=17 May 2018 |doi=10.1177/1473779518773642|s2cid=219987922 }}</ref> The United Kingdom proactively promotes the language globally to build connections, understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries worldwide.<ref>British Council {{Cite web |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/ |title=British Council | the UK's international culture and education organisation |access-date=5 December 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201181104/https://www.britishcouncil.org/ |url-status=live }} (last checked 6 February 2023)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/learningenglish/english/hygiene |title=About BBC Learning English |website=BBC |access-date=9 February 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204204233/https://www.bbc.com/learningenglish/english/hygiene |url-status=live }}</ref> It is estimated that 95 per cent of the UK's population are [[monolingual]] English speakers.<ref name="BBC languages">{{Cite web |title=Languages across Europe: United Kingdom |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/uk.shtml |access-date=4 February 2013 |website=BBC}}</ref> 5.5 per cent of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of relatively recent immigration.<ref name="BBC languages" /> South Asian languages are the largest grouping which includes [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], [[Hindi]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].<ref>Carl Skutsch (2013). ''Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities''. pp.1261. Routledge. Retrieved 3 December 2020.</ref> According to the 2011 census, [[Polish language|Polish]] has become the second-largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Booth |first=Robert |date=30 January 2013 |title=Polish becomes England's second language |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/30/polish-becomes-englands-second-language |access-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> In 2019, some three-quarters of a million people spoke little or no English.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2019 |title=The teenagers who translate for their parents |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-47982494/the-teenagers-who-translate-for-their-parents |access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref> |
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[[File:Bilingual welcome sign Newry.jpg|thumb|[[Bilingual sign]] ([[Irish language|Irish]] and [[English language|English]]) in [[Newry]], [[Northern Ireland]]]] |
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Three indigenous [[Celtic languages]] are spoken in the UK: [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]]. [[Cornish language|Cornish]], which became extinct as a first language in the late 18th century, is subject to revival efforts and has a small group of second language speakers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Track |first1=Robert Lawrence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLx9AgAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9Cthese+people+speak+the+dead+language+as+a+second+language%E2%80%9D&pg=PA63 |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |last2=Stockwell, Peter |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-41358-9 |page=63 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=4 August 2019}}; {{Cite web |title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Strasbourg, 1.II.1995 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/157.htm |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Council of Europe}}; {{Cite web |title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/148.htm |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref><ref name="reglang" /> According to the [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021 census]], the [[Welsh-speaking population]] of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 people (17.8 per cent).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welsh language in Wales (Census 2021) |url=https://gov.wales/welsh-language-wales-census-2021-html |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=gov.wales |date=6 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> In addition, it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wynn Thomas, Peter |date=March 2007 |title=Welsh today |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/welsh.shtml |access-date=5 July 2011 |website=Voices |publisher=BBC}}</ref> In the 2011 census in Northern Ireland 167,487 people (10.4 per cent) stated that they had "some knowledge of Irish" (see [[Irish language in Northern Ireland]]), almost exclusively in the [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]] (mainly Catholic) population. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2 per cent of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 per cent of those living in the [[Outer Hebrides]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Census 2001 – Gaelic Report |url=http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/press/news2005/scotlands-census-2001-gaelic-report.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522110328/http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/press/news2005/scotlands-census-2001-gaelic-report.html |archive-date=22 May 2013 |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=General Register Office for Scotland}}</ref> The number of children being taught either Welsh or Scottish Gaelic is increasing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 February 2009 |title=Local UK languages 'taking off' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7885493.stm}}</ref> [[Scots language|Scots]], a language descended from early northern [[Middle English]], has limited [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|recognition]] alongside its regional variant, [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.<ref name="reglang" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Language Data – Scots |url=http://www.eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623185445/http://eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en |archive-date=23 June 2007 |access-date=2 November 2008 |publisher=European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages}}</ref> As of April 2020, there are said to be around 151,000 users of [[British Sign Language]] (BSL), a [[sign language]] used by deaf people, in the UK.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Hannah |date=23 April 2020 |title='People are dying because of this': Calls for UK Gov to follow Scotland with sign language interpreter at Covid-19 briefing |work=The Scotsman |url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/people-are-dying-because-calls-uk-gov-follow-scotland-sign-language-interpreter-covid-19-briefing-2547989 |access-date=19 December 2021}}</ref> |
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=== Religion === |
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{{Main|Religion in the United Kingdom}} |
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{{Pie chart |
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|thumb = right |
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|caption = Religion in the United Kingdom (2018 research)<ref>{{cite web|date=2015|title=United Kingdom|access-date=18 May 2020|publisher=[[Association of Religion Data Archives]]|url=http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_233_1.asp|archive-date=2 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502122744/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_233_1.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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|label1= None |
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|value1 = 52 |
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|color1 = Beige |
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|label2 = [[Church of England]] |
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|value2 = 13.7 |
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|color2 = Purple |
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|label3 = [[Catholic Church in the United Kingdom|Catholic Church]] |
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|value3 = 8.7 |
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|color3 = Red |
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|label4 = Other Christian |
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|value4 = 13.2 |
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|color4 = Skyblue |
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|label5 = [[Islam]] |
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|value5 = 6.7 |
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|color5 = MediumSeaGreen |
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|label6 = Other religions |
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|value6 = 3.6 |
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|color6 = Orange |
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|label7 = Not stated |
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|value7 = 2.1 |
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|color7 = Gray |
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}} |
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Forms of [[History of Christianity in Britain|Christianity]] have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years.<ref>Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYnfhTq2M7EC&pg=PA144 ''A Dictionary of British History'']. Oxford University Press. p. 144. {{ISBN|978-0-19-955037-1}}.</ref> Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,<ref>Field, Clive D. (November 2009). [http://www.brin.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/development-of-religious-statistics.pdf "British religion in numbers"]. BRIN Discussion Series on Religious Statistics, Discussion Paper 001. Retrieved 7 March 2015.</ref> while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam.<ref>Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ryrD2YODzxUC&pg=PA291 ''Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey, and Pakistan'']. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 55–56. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-4389-0}}.</ref> This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith,<ref>Brown, Callum G. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ryrD2YODzxUC&pg=PA291 ''Religion and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain'']. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 291. {{ISBN|978-0-582-47289-1}}.</ref> [[secularised]],<ref>Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dto-P2YfWJIC&pg=PA84 ''Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. {{ISBN|978-0-521-83984-6}}.</ref> or [[post-Christian]] society.<ref>Fergusson, David (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Owz4aBSEINgC&pg=PA94 ''Church, State and Civil Society'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. {{ISBN|978-0-521-52959-4}}.</ref> |
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In the 2001 census, 71.6 per cent of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being [[Islam]] (2.8 per cent), [[Hinduism]] (1.0 per cent), [[Sikhism]] (0.6 per cent), [[Judaism]] (0.5 per cent), [[Buddhism]] (0.3 per cent) and all other religions (0.3 per cent).<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Census 2001 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312034628/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=12 March 2007 |access-date=22 April 2007 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> Of the respondents, 15 per cent stated that they had [[irreligion|no religion]] and a further 7 per cent did not state a religious preference.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 October 2004 |title=Religious Populations |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/02/20757/53570 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604111413/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=954 |archive-date=4 June 2011 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> A [[Tearfund]] survey in 2007 showed that only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2007 |title=United Kingdom: New Report Finds Only One in 10 Attend Church |url=http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213155625/http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html |archive-date=13 December 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=News.adventist.org}}</ref> Between the 2001 and 2011 census, there was a 12 per cent decrease in the number of people who identified as Christian, while the percentage of those reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing by the most substantial margin to a total of about 5 per cent.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Philby |first=Charlotte |date=12 December 2012 |title=Less religious and more ethnically diverse: Census reveals a picture of Britain today |work=[[The Independent]] |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/less-religious-and-more-ethnically-diverse-census-reveals-a-picture-of-britain-today-8406506.html}}</ref> The [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Muslim population]] has increased from 1.6 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011, making it the second-largest religious group in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2013 |title=The percentage of the population with no religion has increased in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/sty-religion.html |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> |
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The Church of England is the [[State religion|established church]] in England.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/ |title=The History of the Church of England |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221212004/http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history |archive-date=21 February 2010 |url-status=dead |work=The Church of England |access-date=23 November 2008}}</ref> It retains a [[Lords Spiritual|representation]] in the UK Parliament, and the British monarch is its [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|Supreme Governor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Queen and Church of England |url=http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008203611/http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp |archive-date=8 October 2006 |access-date=5 June 2010 |publisher=British Monarchy Media Centre}}</ref> In [[religion in Scotland|Scotland]], the [[Church of Scotland]] is recognised as the [[national church]]. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and [[Presbyterian polity|Presbyterian Church Government]]" upon his or her accession.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Queen and the Church |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandChurch/History.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605025533/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandChurch/History.aspx |archive-date=5 June 2011 |publisher=The British Monarchy (Official Website)}}</ref><ref name="reglang" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 February 2010 |title=Our structure |url=https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125192732/https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-structure |archive-date=25 January 2020 |website=churchofscotland.org.uk}}</ref> The [[Church in Wales]] was disestablished in 1920 and, because the [[Church of Ireland]] was disestablished in 1870 before the [[partition of Ireland]], there is no established church in Northern Ireland.<ref>Weller, Paul (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=tHc88PzAPLMC&pg=PA80 ''Time for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State, and Society'']. London: Continuum. pp. 79–80. {{ISBN|978-0-567-08487-3}}.</ref> Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 per cent of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 per cent Catholic, 6 per cent Presbyterian, and 3.4 per cent Methodist, with small numbers of other Protestant denominations such as [[Plymouth Brethren]], and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches.<ref>Peach, Ceri, [https://books.google.com/books?id=i6ER_z8gcD4C "United Kingdom, a major transformation of the religious landscape"], in H. Knippenberg. ed. (2005). ''The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe''. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 44–58. {{ISBN|978-90-5589-248-8}}.</ref> |
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=== Migration === |
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{{Main|Historical immigration to Great Britain|Modern immigration to the United Kingdom}} |
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{{See also|Foreign-born population of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:United Kingdom foreign born population by country of birth.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Estimated foreign-born population by country of birth from April 2007 to March 2008]] |
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[[File:British expats countrymap.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Estimated number of British citizens living overseas by country in 2006]] |
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Immigration is now contributing to a rising UK population,<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 August 2008 |title=Immigration and births to non-British mothers pushes British population to record high |work=London Evening Standard |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/immigration-and-births-to-nonbritish-mothers-pushes-british-population-to-record-high-6816318.html}}</ref> with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. According to official statistics released in 2015, 27 per cent of UK live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2015 |title=Births in England and Wales: 2014 |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/birth-summary-tables--england-and-wales/2014/index.html |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21 per cent to 239,000.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Travis |first=Alan |date=25 August 2011 |title=UK net migration rises 21 per cent |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/aug/25/uk-net-migration-rises-21}}</ref> |
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In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of British citizenships granted annually was 195,800. The most common previous nationalities of those naturalised in 2014 were Indian, Pakistani, [[Philippines|Filipino]], [[Nigeria]]n, [[Bangladesh]]i, [[Nepal]]i, Chinese, South African, Polish and [[Somalia|Somali]].<ref name="Blinder2015">{{Cite web |last=Blinder |first=Scott |date=27 March 2015 |title=Naturalisation as a British Citizen: Concepts and Trends |url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Naturalisation%20as%20a%20British%20Citizen%20-%20Concepts%20and%20Trends_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916052200/http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Naturalisation%20as%20a%20British%20Citizen%20-%20Concepts%20and%20Trends_0.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2015 |access-date=1 August 2015 |publisher=The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford}}</ref> The total number of grants of settlement, which confer [[Permanent residency|permanent residence]] in the UK but not citizenship,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blinder |first=Scott |date=11 June 2014 |title=Settlement in the UK |url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/settlement-uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906232123/http://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/settlement-uk |archive-date=6 September 2015 |access-date=1 August 2015 |publisher=The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford}}</ref> was approximately 154,700 in 2013, higher than the previous two years.<ref name=Blinder2015 /> |
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Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930, around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century, some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.<ref>Richards (2004), pp. 6–7.</ref> Today, at least 5.5 million UK-born people live abroad,<ref name="BritsAbroad">{{Cite web |last1=Sriskandarajah |first1=Dhananjayan |last2=Drew |first2=Catherine |date=11 December 2006 |title=Brits Abroad: Mapping the scale and nature of British emigration |url=http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828011816/http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509 |archive-date=28 August 2007 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Brits Abroad: world overview |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/default.stm |access-date=20 April 2007}}; {{Cite news |last=Casciani |first=Dominic |date=11 December 2006 |title=5.5 m Britons 'opt to live abroad' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6210358.stm |access-date=20 April 2007}}</ref> mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.<ref name="BritsAbroad" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 December 2006 |title=Brits Abroad: Country-by-country |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm}}</ref> |
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=== Education === |
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{{Main|Education in the United Kingdom|Universities in the United Kingdom}} |
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{{Further|Education in England|Education in Scotland|Education in Wales|Education in Northern Ireland}} |
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[[File:Oxford - Radcliffe Square - University Church of St Mary the Virgin, Brasenose College, Radcliffe Camera 1737-48 by James Gibbs, Bodleian Library & All Souls College 04.jpg|thumb|[[University of Oxford]] is widely regarded as one of the world's leading universities. ]] |
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Education in the United Kingdom is a [[Devolution|devolved]] matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38 per cent of the United Kingdom population has a university or [[college degree]], which is the highest percentage in Europe, and among the highest percentages in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2012 |title=The Most Educated Countries in the World |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html;_ylt=AlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG;_ylu=X3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--;_ylg=X3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--;_ylv=3?page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204213400/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html%3B_ylt%3DAlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG%3B_ylu%3DX3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--%3B_ylg%3DX3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--%3B_ylv%3D3?page=1 |archive-date=4 February 2016 |access-date=20 April 2016 |website=Yahoo Finance}}; {{Cite magazine |date=27 September 2012 |title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is… |url=http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is |magazine=Time |location=New York |access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref> The United Kingdom is home to many universities, including the [[University of Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge]] which often achieve first place on global rankings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2023/world-ranking |title=The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2023 |date=4 October 2022 |language=en|access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |title=QS World University Rankings |language=en|access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref> |
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In 2018, the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]], coordinated by the [[OECD]], ranked the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in reading, literacy, mathematics, and science. The average British student scored 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/Combined_Executive_Summaries_PISA_2018.pdf|title=PISA 2018 Results|website=oecd.org|access-date=7 August 2023}}</ref> |
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=== Healthcare === |
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{{Main||Healthcare in the United Kingdom}}{{Further|Healthcare in England|Healthcare in Scotland|Healthcare in Wales|}}[[File:QEUH.jpg|thumb|right|[[NHS Scotland]]'s [[Queen Elizabeth University Hospital]] in Glasgow, the largest hospital campus in Europe]] |
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The modern-system of [[Universal service|universal]] [[Publicly funded health care|publicly funded]] in the United Kingdom has its origins in the creation of the [[National Health Service]] (NHS) in 1949 which still exists to this day and is the primary healthcare provider in the United Kingdom. The widespread popularity of the NHS has led to it being described as a "national religion".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gill |first=Martha |date=9 July 2023 |title=To those who claim the NHS has turned into a British religion, I say: keep the faith |language=en-GB |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/09/nhs-british-religion-keep-faith-nhs-at-75 |access-date=16 July 2023 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Is the NHS our new national religion? – Religion Media Centre |url=https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/is-the-nhs-our-new-national-religion/ |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=religionmediacentre.org.uk|date=14 April 2020 }}</ref> Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a [[Devolution|devolved matter]] and each country has its own system of universal publicly funded healthcare, although private healthcare is also available. Public healthcare is provided to all [[British nationality law|UK permanent residents]] and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from [[Taxation in the United Kingdom|general taxation]]. The [[World Health Organization]], in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/worldhealthrepor00worl |title=The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2000 |isbn=978-92-4-156198-3 |editor-last=Haden |editor-first=Angela |location=Geneva |access-date=5 July 2011 |editor-last2=Campanini |editor-first2=Barbara}}; {{Cite web |last=World Health Organization |author-link=World Health Organization |title=Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries |url=http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~wgreene/Statistics/WHO-COMP-Study-30.pdf |access-date=5 July 2011 |publisher=New York University}}</ref> |
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Since 1979, expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Peter |title=The NHS from Thatcher to Blair |url=http://www.healthp.org/node/71 |journal=NHS Consultants Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120124807/http://www.healthp.org/node/71 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |access-date=19 December 2018 |quote=The Budget ... was even more generous to the NHS than had been expected amounting to an annual rise of 7.4 per cent above the rate of inflation for the next five years. This would take us to 9.4 per cent of GDP spent on health ie around EU average.}}</ref> The 2018 [[OECD]] data, which incorporates in health a chunk of what in the UK is classified as social care, has the UK spending £3,121 per head.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 September 2019 |title=Swindells: They aren't 'your' patients |publisher=Health Service Journal |url=https://www.hsj.co.uk/policy-and-regulation/swindells-they-arent-your-patients/7025988.article? |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref> In 2017 the UK spent £2,989 per person on healthcare, around the median for members of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2019 |title=How does UK healthcare spending compare with other countries? |publisher=Office of National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/healthcaresystem/articles/howdoesukhealthcarespendingcomparewithothercountries/2019-08-29 |access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref> |
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Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the [[General Medical Council]], the [[Nursing and Midwifery Council]] and non-governmental-based, such as the [[Royal College]]s. Political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national [[executive (government)|executives]]; [[healthcare in England]] is the responsibility of the UK Government; [[healthcare in Northern Ireland]] is the responsibility of the [[Northern Ireland Executive]]; [[healthcare in Scotland]] is the responsibility of the [[Scottish Government]]; and [[healthcare in Wales]] is the responsibility of the [[Welsh Government]]. Each [[National Health Service]] has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 August 2008 |title='Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7586147.stm}}; {{Cite news |last=Triggle |first=Nick |date=2 January 2008 |title=NHS now four different systems |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7149423.stm}}</ref> |
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== Culture == |
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{{Main|Culture of the United Kingdom}} |
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The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by many factors including: the nation's island status; [[History of the United Kingdom|its history]]; and being a [[political union]] of four countries with each preserving elements of distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. As a result of the [[British Empire]], British influence can be observed in [[English language|the language]], culture and [[Common law|legal systems]] of many of [[List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom|its former colonies]], in particular, the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Ireland, a common culture known today as the [[Anglosphere]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Julian Go |title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15174-1 |editor-last=Arjomand |editor-first=Saïd Amir |pages=92–94 |chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ferguson|2004|p=307}} The substantial cultural influence of the United Kingdom has led to it being described as a "[[cultural superpower]]".<ref name="culture">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf |title=The cultural superpower: British cultural projection abroad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916155419/http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf|archive-date=16 September 2018 |url-status=dead |journal=British Politics Review |location=Norway |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=Winter 2011 |issn=1890-4505 |publisher=British Politics Society}}</ref><ref name="sheridan">{{Cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Greg |date=15 May 2010 |title=Cameron has chance to make UK great again |work=The Australian |location=Sydney |url= http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/cameron-has-chance-to-make-uk-great-again/story-e6frg6zo-1225866975992 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the United Kingdom ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2013 |title=BBC poll: Germany most popular country in the world |work=BBC News |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22624104 |access-date=20 February 2018}}; {{Cite press release |date=4 June 2014 |title=World Service Global Poll: Negative views of Russia on the rise |publisher=BBC Media Centre |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2014/world-service-country-poll |access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref> |
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=== Literature === |
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{{Main|British literature}} |
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[[File:Title page William Shakespeare's First Folio 1623.jpg|thumb|upright|[[William Shakespeare]]'s [[First Folio]] from 1623; a copy is on display in the [[British Library]].]] |
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British literature includes literature associated with the United Kingdom, the [[Isle of Man]] and the [[Channel Islands]]. Most British literature is in English. In 2005, some 206,000 books were published in the United Kingdom and in 2006 it was the [[books published per country per year|largest publisher of books]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Goldfarb, Jeffrey |date=10 May 2006 |title=Bookish Britain overtakes America as top publisher |work=RedOrbit |agency=Reuters |location=Texas |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/entertainment/499053/bookish_britain_overtakes_america_as_top_publisher |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106093222/http://www.redorbit.com/news/entertainment/499053/bookish_britain_overtakes_america_as_top_publisher |archive-date=6 January 2008}}</ref> |
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The English playwright and poet [[William Shakespeare]] is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Shakespeare (English author) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/537853/William-Shakespeare |access-date=26 February 2006 |publisher=Britannica Online encyclopedia}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |access-date=26 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209154055/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |archive-date=9 February 2006}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=William Shakespeare |publisher=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Shakespeare%2c+William |access-date=26 February 2006}}</ref> The 20th-century English crime writer [[Agatha Christie]] is the [[List of best-selling fiction authors|best-selling novelist]] of all time.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 December 2005 |title=Mystery of Christie's success is solved |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by [[George Eliot]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] and [[Emily Brontë]], [[Mary Shelley]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Doris Lessing]] and [[Zadie Smith]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ciabattari |first=Jane |date=December 2015 |title=The 25 greatest British novels |work=BBC Culture |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20151204-the-25-greatest-british-novels |access-date=29 December 2021}}</ref> |
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[[Scottish literature|Scotland's contributions]] include [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (the creator of [[Sherlock Holmes]]), [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]], [[J. M. Barrie]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] and the poet [[Robert Burns]]. More recently [[Hugh MacDiarmid]] and [[Neil M. Gunn]] contributed to the [[Scottish Renaissance]], with grimmer works from [[Ian Rankin]] and [[Iain Banks]]. Scotland's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO's first worldwide [[City of Literature]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=Edinburgh, United Kingdom, UNESCO City of Literature |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/creativity/creative-industries/creative-cities-network/literature/edinburgh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528152834/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/creativity/creative-industries/creative-cities-network/literature/edinburgh |archive-date=28 May 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=9 March 2015 |work=Unesco}}</ref> |
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Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, ''[[Y Gododdin]]'', which was composed most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]] or [[Old Welsh]] and contains the earliest known reference to [[King Arthur]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Welsh poetry |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/language_poetry.shtml |access-date=29 December 2010 |work=BBC Wales}}</ref> The Arthurian legend was further developed by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lang, Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKJiPyyTevgC |title=History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne |publisher=Wildside Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8095-3229-2 |location=Holicong, PA |page=42 |orig-date=1913}}</ref> Poet [[Dafydd ap Gwilym]] (''fl.'' 1320–1370) is regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=Dafydd ap Gwilym |url=http://www.academi.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324034938/http://www.literaturewales.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng |archive-date=24 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2011 |website=[[Literature Wales|Academi.org]] |quote=Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages.}}</ref> [[Daniel Owen]] is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing ''[[Rhys Lewis (novel)|Rhys Lewis]]'' in 1885. The best-known of the [[Anglo-Welsh poetry|Anglo-Welsh poets]] are [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[R. S. Thomas]], the latter nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include [[Richard Llewellyn]] and [[Kate Roberts (author)|Kate Roberts]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsalerts.bbc.co.uk/1/low/wales/551486.stm |title=True birthplace of Wales's literary hero |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316173733/http://newscdn.bbc.net.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/551486.stm |archive-date=16 March 2020 |url-status=dead |website=BBC News |date=5 December 1999 |access-date=28 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kate Roberts: Biography |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northwest/halloffame/arts/kateroberts.shtml |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120724104228/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northwest/halloffame/arts/kateroberts.shtml |archive-date=24 July 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=19 February 2017 |website=BBC Wales}}</ref> |
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Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include [[Oscar Wilde]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Varty |first=Anne |title=A Preface to Oscar Wilde |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89231-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 231–232]}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Oscar Wilde |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |publisher=[[Cengage]] |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/english-literature-19th-cent-biographies/oscar-wilde |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref> [[Bram Stoker]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moss |first=Joyce |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780787637286 |title=British and Irish Literature and Its Times: The Victorian Era to the Present (1837–) |publisher=Gale Group |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7876-3729-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780787637286/page/107 107] |url-access=registration}}</ref> and [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holroyd |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/bernardshaw00holr/page/384 |title=Bernard Shaw, Volume 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power |publisher=Chatto & Windus |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7011-3350-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bernardshaw00holr/page/384 384]}}; {{Cite web |title=G B Shaw |url=https://www.bl.uk/people/g-b-shaw |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=Discovering Literature: 20th century |publisher=[[British Library]]}}</ref> There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including [[Joseph Conrad]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Middleton |first=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Azd1f8NBpUoC&pg=PA159 |title=Joseph Conrad |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-26851-6 |page=159}}</ref> [[T. S. Eliot]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=John Xiros |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqmNjQzhwV4C&pg=PA111 |title=The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45790-3 |page=111}}</ref> [[Kazuo Ishiguro]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sim |first=Wai-chew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcKLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT201 |title=Kazuo Ishiguro |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-19867-1 |page=201}}</ref> Sir [[Salman Rushdie]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Salman Rushdie |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100433765 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> and [[Ezra Pound]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=James |date=17 May 2008 |title=Home from home |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/may/17/poetry3 |access-date=10 December 2019}}; {{Cite book |last=Nadel |first=Ira |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECiGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |title=Ezra Pound: A Literary Life |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-37881-0 |page=90}}</ref> |
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=== Philosophy === |
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{{Main|British philosophy}} |
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The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of '[[British Empiricism]]', a branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the '[[Scottish School of Common Sense]]'.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |title=A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins |publisher=Thoemmes Press |year=2000 |editor-last=Fieser, James |location=Bristol |access-date=17 December 2010}}</ref> The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are [[John Locke]], [[George Berkeley]]{{Efn|Berkeley is in fact Irish but was called a 'British empiricist' due to the territory of what is now known as the [[Republic of Ireland]] being in the UK at the time.}} and [[David Hume]]; while [[Dugald Stewart]], [[Thomas Reid]] and [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet|William Hamilton]] were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of [[utilitarianism]], a moral philosophy first used by [[Jeremy Bentham]] and later by [[John Stuart Mill]] in his short work ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Palmer, Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7y5MJOuN30C&pg=PA66 |title=Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7188-2978-0 |location=Cambridge |page=66}}; {{Cite book |last=Scarre, Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8A4xLnzfqYwC&pg=PA82 |title=Utilitarianism |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-12197-2 |location=London |page=82}}</ref> |
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=== Music === |
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{{Main|Music of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Royal Albert Hall, BBC Proms 2017.jpg|thumb|[[The Proms]] is a classical music festival, most closely associated with [[Henry Wood]] and held at the [[Royal Albert Hall]], which regularly plays music by [[Edward Elgar]] and other British composers]] |
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Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the indigenous [[folk music]] of [[Folk music of England|England]], [[Music of Wales#Folk music|Wales]], [[Folk music of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Folk music of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]. Historically, there has been exceptional Renaissance music from the [[Tudor period]], with masses, madrigals and lute music by [[Thomas Tallis]], [[John Taverner]], [[William Byrd]], [[Orlando Gibbons]] and [[John Dowland]]. After the [[Stuart Restoration]], an English tradition of dramatic masques, anthems and airs became established, led by [[Henry Purcell]], followed by [[Thomas Arne]] and others. The German-born composer [[George Frideric Handel]] became a [[Naturalization|naturalised]] [[British nationality law|British citizen]] in 1727, when he composed the anthem ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'' for the [[coronation of George II]]; it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', were written in the English language.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2009 |title=British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel |url=http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326164147/http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm |archive-date=26 March 2010 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite news |last=Andrews |first=John |date=14 April 2006 |title=Handel all'inglese |work=Playbill |location=New York |url=http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html |access-date=11 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516210558/http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html |archive-date=16 May 2008}}</ref> In the second half of the 19th century, as [[Arthur Sullivan]] and his librettist [[W. S. Gilbert]] wrote their popular [[Savoy opera]]s, [[Edward Elgar]]'s wide range of music rivalled that of his contemporaries on the continent. Increasingly, however, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its [[folk music]], notably [[Gustav Holst]], [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and [[Benjamin Britten]], a pioneer of modern British opera. Among the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: [[Peter Maxwell Davies]] (Orkney), [[Harrison Birtwistle]] (mythological), and [[John Tavener]] (religious).<ref>{{Cite Grove|title=Great Britain|first1=Nicholas|last1=Iemperley|date = 2002| url =https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O006236 |url-access=subscription}}; {{Cite Grove|title=England (i)|date = 2001| url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40044|url-access= subscription|first1=Stephen|last1= Banfield|first2= Ian|last2= Russell}}; {{Cite Grove|title=Wales| date=2001|first1=Geraint|last1= Lewis|first2= Lyn|last2= Davies|first3= Phyllis|last3= Kinney| url = |
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https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.41108 | url-access=subscription}}; {{Cite Grove|title=Scotland| first1=Kenneth |last1= Elliott| first2= Francis|last2= Collinson| first3= Peggy |last3= Duesenberry |url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40113 | url-access = subscription | date = 2001}}; {{Cite Grove|title= Ireland| first1 = Harry |last1=White |first2 = Nicholas| last2= Carolan| |
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url= https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13901|url-access= subscription| date = 2011}}; {{Cite web |title=British 20th century composers |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zdjw7p3/revision/1 |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref> |
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According to ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', the term "[[pop music]]" originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe [[rock and roll]]'s fusion with the "new youth music".<ref>R. Middleton, et al., [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_gmo "Pop"], ''Grove music online'', retrieved 14 March 2010. {{Subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113160329/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_gmo|date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'' states that artists such as [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s.<ref>"Pop", [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t237 ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music''], retrieved 9 March 2010.{{Subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112170116/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t237|date=12 November 2017}}</ref> Birmingham became known as the birthplace of [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], with the band [[Black Sabbath]] starting there in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Birmingham, England ... the unlikely birthplace of heavy metal |language=en |work=www.cnn.com |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/01/birmingham.home.of.metal/index.html |access-date=28 February 2022}}; {{Cite web |last=Bentley |first=David |date=4 June 2013 |title=Midlands rocks! How Birmingham's industrial heritage made it the birthplace of heavy metal |url=http://www.birminghampost.co.uk/whats-on/music/birmingham-birthplace-of-heavy-metal-4031445 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Birmingham Post]] |language=en}}</ref> In the following years, Britain widely occupied a part in the development of [[rock music]], with British acts pioneering [[hard rock]];<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rolling Stones {{!}} Biography & History |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-rolling-stones-mn0000894465/biography |access-date=22 July 2020 |website=AllMusic |language=en-us}}</ref> [[raga rock]]; [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tom Larson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGJ7XmA8rjIC&pg=PA183 |title=History of Rock and Roll |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7872-9969-9 |pages=183–187}}</ref> [[space rock]]; [[glam rock]];<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Glam Rock |url=http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561509274/glam_rock.html |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828224412/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561509274/glam_rock.html |archive-date=28 August 2009 |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] }}</ref> [[Gothic rock]],<ref>{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=NME Originals: Goth |url=https://www.nme.com/originals/4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126150121/http://www.nme.com/originals/4 |archive-date=26 January 2008 |access-date=30 September 2013 |website=[[NME]]}}</ref> [[psychedelic rock]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pop/Rock » Psychedelic/Garage |url=https://www.allmusic.com/subgenre/psychedelic-garage-ma0000002800 |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> and [[punk rock]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |year=2001 |title=The Sex Pistols |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/TheSexPistols/;kw=%5Bnews,artists,9620,40534,40572%5D |magazine=RollingStone.com |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130201183919/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/TheSexPistols/;kw=%5Bnews,artists,9620,40534,40572%5D |archive-date=1 February 2013 |access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref> British acts also developed [[neo soul]] and created [[dubstep]].<ref>Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101104165122/http://allmusic.com/explore/essay/british-soul-t2160 British Soul]. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.; [http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465 AllMusic – Dubstep] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923151236/http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465|date=23 September 2017}} "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"; {{Cite news |last=Goldman |first=Vivien |date=31 January 2012 |title=Local Groove Does Good: The Story Of Trip-Hop's Rise From Bristol |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/01/31/142607358/local-groove-does-good-the-story-of-trip-hops-rise-from-bristol}}</ref> The modern UK is known to produce some of the most prominent English-speaking rappers along with the United States, including [[Stormzy]], [[Kano (rapper)|Kano]], [[Yxng Bane]], [[Ramz (rapper)|Ramz]], [[Little Simz]] and [[Skepta]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=5 U.K. Rappers Primed to Take Over America in 2018 |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8097878/uk-rappers-to-watch-2018 |magazine=Billboard |access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref> |
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[[File:The Fabs.JPG|thumb|[[The Beatles]] are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music, selling over a billion records.<ref name="Beatles sales">{{Cite web |title=1960–1969 |url=http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/# |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425011032/http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969 |archive-date=25 April 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=EMI Group}}</ref><ref name="McCartney">{{Cite magazine |date=8 June 1992 |title=Paul At Fifty |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |magazine=Time |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206120350/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |archive-date=6 February 2009}}</ref><ref name="Guinness">[https://books.google.com/books?id=rdU1xtIWJz0C Most Successful Group] ''[[The Guinness Book of Records]]'' 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref>]] |
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The Beatles have international sales of over 1 billion units and are the [[List of best-selling music artists|biggest-selling]] and [[Cultural impact of the Beatles|most influential band in the history of popular music]].<ref name="Beatles sales"/><ref name="McCartney"/><ref name="Guinness"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=25 November 2010 |title=Beatles a big hit with downloads |work=Belfast Telegraph |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/beatles-a-big-hit-with-downloads-15013117.html |access-date=16 May 2011}}</ref> Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Led Zeppelin]], the [[Bee Gees]], and [[Elton John]], all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2 |date=2 February 2009 |publisher=[[EMI]] |url=http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar®-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe |access-date=9 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423012539/http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar%C2%AE-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe |archive-date=23 April 2014}}; {{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Urmee |date=17 July 2008 |title=Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730164432/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |archive-date=30 July 2008}}; {{Cite news |last=Alleyne |first=Richard |date=19 April 2008 |title=Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=31 March 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}; {{Cite news |date=11 July 2006 |title=Floyd 'true to Barrett's legacy' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5170644.stm}}; {{Cite news |last=Holton |first=Kate |date=17 January 2008 |title=Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSL1767761020080117 |access-date=26 October 2008}}; {{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Tim |date=12 May 2008 |title=Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013215157/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |archive-date=13 October 2011}}</ref> The [[Brit Awards]] are the [[British Phonographic Industry|BPI's]] annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the [[Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music|Outstanding Contribution to Music]] award include [[the Who]], [[David Bowie]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[the Police]], and [[Fleetwood Mac]] (who are a British-American band).<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2012/feb/22/brit-awards-winners-list-2012 "Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977"]. ''The Guardian'' (London). Retrieved 28 February 2012.</ref> <!-- Please note that the following list of recent musicians and groups includes only those selling more than 30 million records. -->More recent UK music acts that have had international success include [[George Michael]], [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]], [[Spice Girls]], [[Radiohead]], [[Coldplay]], [[Arctic Monkeys]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[Susan Boyle]], [[Adele]], [[Ed Sheeran]], [[Lewis Capaldi]], [[One Direction]] and [[Harry Styles]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2020 |title=Harry Styles Has Weathered the Post-Boy Band Storm Better Than Most |url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2020/01/harry-styles-solo-career |access-date=15 September 2020 |website=Consequence of Sound |language=en-US}}; {{Cite magazine |date=16 July 2020 |title=10 Years of One Direction: The Story of the World's Biggest Boy Band, Told With the Fans Who Made It Happen |magazine=Billboard |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9419436/one-direction-ten-year-anniversary-fan-interviews |access-date=15 September 2020}}; {{Cite news |last=Corner, Lewis |date=16 February 2012 |title=Adele, Coldplay biggest-selling UK artists worldwide in 2011 |work=Digital Spy |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a366130/adele-coldplay-biggest-selling-uk-artists-worldwide-in-2011.html |access-date=22 March 2012}}; {{Cite web |title=Ed Sheeran's career journey: From street busker to global superstar |url=https://planetradio.co.uk/hits-radio/entertainment/celebrity/ed-sheeran-career-timeline/ |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=PlanetRadio.co.uk |last=Magliola |first=Anna Sky |date=30 November 2022}}</ref> |
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A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hughes |first=Mark |date=14 January 2008 |title=A tale of two cities of culture: Liverpool vs Stavanger |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS |access-date=2 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175425/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS |archive-date=18 June 2018}}</ref> Glasgow's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a [[UNESCO]] [[City of Music (UNESCO)|City of Music]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 August 2008 |title=Glasgow gets city of music honour |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/glasgow_and_west/7570915.stm |access-date=2 August 2009}}</ref> Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as [[acid house]], and from the mid-1990s, [[Britpop]]. London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of [[electronic music]] sub-genres such as [[drum and bass]] and [[trip hop]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Out of the melting pot: The origins and evolution of drum'n'bass |url=https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/history-of-drum-and-bass-music |access-date=1 August 2021 |website=Red Bull|date=25 June 2020 }}</ref> Influential UK dance acts include [[the Prodigy]], [[Underworld (band)|Underworld]], [[Leftfield]], [[Basement Jaxx]], [[Chemical Brothers]], [[Sub Focus]], [[Chase & Status]] and [[Calvin Harris]]. |
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=== Visual art === |
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{{Main|Art of the United Kingdom|Architecture of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Morris Evenlode printed textile.jpg|thumb|[[William Morris]] textile design, 1883]] |
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[[File:Angel of the North - 6150534524.jpg|thumb|The [[Angel of the North]] sculpture by [[Antony Gormley]] has become a symbol of [[northern England]].]] |
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Major British artists include: the [[Romanticism|Romantics]] [[William Blake]], [[John Constable]], [[Samuel Palmer]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]]; the [[portrait]] painters [[Joshua Reynolds|Sir Joshua Reynolds]] and [[Lucian Freud]]; the landscape artists [[Thomas Gainsborough]] and [[L. S. Lowry]]; the pioneer of the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]] [[William Morris]]; the figurative painter [[Francis Bacon (artist)|Francis Bacon]]; the [[Pop artist]]s [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]], [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] and [[David Hockney]]; the pioneers of [[Conceptual art]] movement [[Art & Language]];<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tate |title=Art & Language – Art Term {{!}} Tate |work=Tate |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/art-language |access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref> the collaborative duo [[Gilbert and George]]; the [[Abstract art|abstract]] artist [[Howard Hodgkin]]; and the sculptors [[Antony Gormley]], [[Anish Kapoor]] and [[Henry Moore]]. During the late 1980s and 1990s the [[Saatchi Gallery]] in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "[[Young British Artists]]": [[Damien Hirst]], [[Chris Ofili]], [[Rachel Whiteread]], [[Tracey Emin]], [[Mark Wallinger]], [[Steve McQueen (director)|Steve McQueen]], [[Sam Taylor-Wood]] and the [[Jake and Dinos Chapman|Chapman Brothers]] are among the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement. |
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The [[Royal Academy]] in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school [[University of the Arts London]], which includes the [[Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design]] and [[Chelsea College of Art and Design]]; [[Goldsmiths, University of London]]; the [[Slade School of Fine Art]] (part of [[University College London]]); the [[Glasgow School of Art]]; the [[Royal College of Art]]; and [[The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art]] (part of the University of Oxford). The [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] is a leading centre for the teaching of the [[history of art]]. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the [[National Gallery]], [[National Portrait Gallery (London)|National Portrait Gallery]], [[Tate Britain]] and [[Tate Modern]] (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bayley |first=Stephen |date=24 April 2010 |title=The startling success of Tate Modern |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article7105032.ece |access-date=19 January 2011}} {{Subscription required}}</ref> |
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=== Cinema === |
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{{Main|Cinema of the United Kingdom|Theatre of the United Kingdom}} |
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The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors [[Alfred Hitchcock]], whose film ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is considered by some critics as the [[List of films considered the best|best film of all time]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 August 2012 |title=Vertigo is named 'greatest film of all time' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-19078948 |access-date=18 August 2012}}</ref> and [[David Lean]] are among the most critically acclaimed of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Directors' Top Ten Directors |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517155218/http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archive-date=17 May 2012 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the [[List of highest-grossing film series|highest-grossing film franchises]] (''[[Harry Potter (film series)|Harry Potter]]'' and ''[[James Bond (film series)|James Bond]]'').<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 September 2007 |title=Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2007/sep/11/jkjoannekathleenrowling |access-date=2 November 2010}}</ref> |
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In 2009, British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7 per cent globally and 17 per cent in the United Kingdom.<ref name="statistics">{{Cite web |title=UK film – the vital statistics |url=http://www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk/vitalstats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008125914/http://www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk/vitalstats |archive-date=8 October 2009 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=UK Film Council}}</ref> UK box-office takings totalled £944 million in 2009, with around 173 million admissions.<ref name="statistics" /> The annual [[British Academy Film Awards]] are hosted by the [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 February 2001 |title=Baftas fuel Oscars race |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1190562.stm |access-date=14 February 2011}}</ref> |
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=== Cuisine === |
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{{Main|British cuisine}} |
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{{Further|English cuisine|Northern Irish cuisine|Scottish cuisine|Welsh cuisine}} |
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[[File:Fish, chips and mushy peas.jpg|thumb|[[Fish and chips]], a traditional British dish served with lemon, tartar sauce and mushy peas]] |
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British cuisine developed from various influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. The [[British Empire]] facilitated a knowledge of [[Indian cuisine]] with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have [[Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922|settled in Britain]], producing hybrid dishes, such as [[chicken tikka masala]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 April 2001 |title=Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/19/race.britishidentity |access-date=7 September 2021}}; {{Cite news |last=BBC E-Cyclopedia |date=20 April 2001 |title=Chicken tikka masala: Spice and easy does it |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/1285804.stm |access-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> The British have embraced world cuisine and regularly eat recipes or fast food from Europe, the Caribbean and Asia. Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The tea-rific history of Victorian afternoon tea |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/tea-rific-history-victorian-afternoon-tea |access-date=11 April 2023 |publisher=The British Museum}}</ref> |
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A 2019 YouGov poll rated classic British food, the following had more than 80% of people like them who had tried them: Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, Fish and chips, Crumpets, and Full English breakfast.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/consumer/articles-reports/2019/06/12/classic-british-cuisine-ranked-britons|date=11 June 2019|title=Classic British cuisine ranked by Britons}}</ref> Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of [[List of British desserts|British desserts]]. |
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[[Veganism|Vegan]] and [[Vegetarianism in the United Kingdom|vegetarian]] diets have increased in Britain in recent years. In 2021, a survey found that 8% of British respondents eat a plant-based diet and 36% of respondents have a favourable view of plant-based diets.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 December 2021 |title=No meat please, we're British: now a third of us approve of vegan diet |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/dec/25/no-meat-please-were-british-now-a-third-of-us-approve-of-vegan-diet |access-date=19 February 2022}}</ref> |
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=== Media === |
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{{Main|Media of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Media City Footbridge and BBC Offices (geograph 2685261).jpg|thumb|[[MediaCityUK]] in [[Salford]], [[Greater Manchester]] is one of the largest media production facilities in Europe.]] |
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The [[BBC]], founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.<ref name="MediaNewsline">{{Cite web |title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand |url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005004930/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-date=5 October 2010 |access-date=23 September 2010 |publisher=Media Newsline}}</ref><ref name="ProspectMag">{{Cite web |title=Digital license |url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/?p=64654 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107024637/http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2009/07/digitallicense |archive-date=7 November 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Prospect}}</ref><ref name="AboutBBC">{{Cite news |title=About the BBC – What is the BBC |work=BBC Online |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml |access-date=9 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116202334/http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml |archive-date=16 January 2010}}</ref> It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the [[Television licensing in the United Kingdom|television licence]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newswire7 |date=13 August 2009 |title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand |url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |journal=Media Newsline |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510090842/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-date=10 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011}}; {{Cite web |date=April 2010 |title=TV Licence Fee: facts & figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427080539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml |archive-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=BBC Press Office}}</ref> The [[BBC World Service]] is an [[International broadcasting|international broadcaster]] owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest of any kind.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft Word – The Work of the BBC World Service 2008–09 HC 334 FINAL.doc |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021001645/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2020 |access-date=16 February 2011}}</ref> It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=News in your language – BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ws/languages |website=Bbc.co.uk}}; {{Cite web |title=BBC World Service |url=https://www.facebook.com/pages/category/Media-News-Company/bbcworldservice/about |website=Facebook.com}}</ref> |
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Other major players in the UK media include [[ITV plc|ITV]], which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV Network]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Publications & Policies: The History of ITV |url= http://www.itv.com/aboutitv/publications-policies |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110411224117/http://www.itv.com/aboutitv/publications-policies |archive-date=11 April 2011 |website=ITV.com}}</ref> and [[Sky UK|Sky]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Direct Broadcast Satellite Television |url= http://www.newscorp.com/operations/dbst.html |journal=News Corporation |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604095622/http://www.newscorp.com/operations/dbst.html |archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref> Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the ''[[Daily Mail]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[The Daily Telegraph|''The Telegraph'']], ''[[The Times]]'', and the ''[[Financial Times]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 October 2008 |title=ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008 |work=The Guardian |location=London |url= https://www.theguardian.com/media/table/2008/oct/10/abcs-pressandpublishing |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include ''[[The Spectator]]'', ''[[The Economist]]'', ''[[New Statesman]]'', and ''[[Radio Times]].'' |
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London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although [[MediaCityUK]] in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively.<ref>William, D. (2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=7yg45P35KDMC ''UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland'']. Eastbourne: Gardners Books. {{ISBN|978-9987-16-021-1}}, pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145.</ref> The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Publishing |url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505104322/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx |archive-date=5 May 2011 |publisher=Department of Culture, Media and Sport}}</ref> In 2015, the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, much of this being exported to other [[Anglophone]] countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |date=2016 |title=Annual Report 2015–2016 |url=https://www.internationalpublishers.org/images/reports/Annual_Report_2016/IPA_Annual_Report_2015-2016_interactive.pdf |access-date=14 January 2021 |website=www.internationalpublishers.org |publisher=International Publishers Association |page=16}}</ref> |
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In 2010, 82.5 per cent of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion among the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm |journal=Internet World Stats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610104435/http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011}}</ref> The [[Video games in the United Kingdom|British video game industry]] is the largest in Europe, and, since 2022, the UK has the [[List of video games markets by country|largest video game market]] in Europe by sales, overtaking [[Video games in Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dring |first=Christopher |date=2023-01-12 |title=European console and PC game sales fall 7.1% in 2022 |url=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/european-console-and-pc-game-sales-fall-71-over-2021 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=GamesIndustry.biz |language=en}}</ref> It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after [[Video games in Japan|Japan]] and the [[Video games in the United States|United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About UK Video Games Industry |url=https://tiga.org/about-tiga-and-our-industry/about-uk-video-games-industry |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=TIGA |language=en-GB}}</ref> |
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=== Sport === |
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{{Main|Sport in the United Kingdom|Great Britain at the Olympics}} |
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[[File:Old 18th tee lr.jpg|thumb|right|Golf originated from the [[Old Course at St Andrews]] in Scotland.]] |
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[[Association football]], [[tennis]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby sevens]], [[golf]], [[boxing]], [[netball]], [[water polo]], [[field hockey]], [[English billiards|billiards]], [[darts]], [[Rowing (sport)|rowing]], [[rounders]] and [[cricket]] originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century [[Victorian Britain]].{{efn|In 2012, the President of the IOC, [[Jacques Rogge]], stated, "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf |title=Opening Ceremony of the Games of the XXX Olympiad |website=Olympic.org |access-date=30 November 2013 |date=27 July 2012 |archive-date=19 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819135346/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |title=Unparalleled Sporting History |work=Reuters |access-date=30 November 2013 |last=Mehaffey |first=John |location=London |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525164121/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} |
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A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the UK.<ref name="sports poll">{{Cite web |date=22 December 2003 |title=Rugby Union 'Britain's Second Most Popular Sport' |url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/928/Rugby-Union-Britains-Second-Most-Popular-Sport.aspx |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=Ipsos-Mori}}</ref> England is recognised by [[FIFA]] as the birthplace of club football, and the [[Football Association]] is the oldest of its kind, with the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|rules of football]] first drafted in 1863 by [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rudd |first=Alyson |date=7 April 2008 |title=The father of football deserves much more |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article3694775.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=29 January 2015}}; {{Cite web |date=24 October 2007 |title=Sheffield FC: 150 years of history |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025033006/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-date=25 October 2007 |access-date=29 January 2015 |publisher=[[FIFA]]}}</ref> Each of the [[Home Nations]] (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and [[league system]], and each is individually a governing member of the [[International Football Association Board]] alongside FIFA. The English top division, the [[Premier League]], is the most watched football league in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ebner |first=Sarah |date=2 July 2013 |title=History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/public/ceo-summit/article3804923.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 November 2013}}</ref> The first international football match was contested by [[England national football team|England]] and [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] on 30 November 1872.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell, Paul |author-link=Paul Mitchell (broadcaster) |date=November 2005 |title=The first international football match |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0012/index.shtml |access-date=15 December 2013 |publisher=BBC Sport Scotland}}</ref> England, Scotland, [[Wales national football team|Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]] usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harlow |first=Phil |date=5 August 2008 |title=Why is there no GB Olympics football team? |work=[[BBC Sport]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/football/7529807.stm |access-date=31 December 2010}}</ref> |
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In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK.<ref name="sports poll" /> The sport was created in [[Rugby School]], Warwickshire, and the [[1871 England versus Scotland rugby union match|first rugby international]] took place on 27 March 1871 between [[England national rugby union team|England]] and [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-coventry-warwickshire-25946757 |title=Six ways the town of Rugby helped change the world |work=BBC News |access-date=29 January 2015 |date=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Godwin |first1=Terry |last2=Rhys |first2=Chris |year=1981 |title=The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats |page=10 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-214-4}}</ref> England, Scotland, [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]], [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]], [[France national rugby union team|France]] and [[Italy national rugby union team|Italy]] compete in the [[Six Nations Championship]], which is the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. [[Sports governing bodies]] in [[Rugby union in England|England]], [[Rugby union in Scotland|Scotland]], [[Rugby union in Wales|Wales]] and [[Rugby union in Ireland|Ireland]] organise and regulate the game separately.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Louw, Jaco |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-IiowvNomMC&pg=PA95 |title=The Girlfriends Guide to Rugby |last2=Nesbit, Derrick |publisher=South Publishers |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-620-39541-0 |location=Johannesburg}}</ref> Every four years, the Home Nations make a combined team known as the [[British and Irish Lions]] which tours Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. |
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The United Kingdom hosted the [[Summer Olympic Games]] in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]], [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]] and [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012]], with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the [[2022 Commonwealth Games]], the seventh time a [[Countries of the United Kingdom|constitute country in the United Kingdom]] hosted the [[Commonwealth Games]] (England, Scotland and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once).<ref>{{Cite news |title=The journey of India in Commonwealth Games in 2022 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/allaboutsports/the-journey-of-india-in-commonwealth-games-in-2022-44477/ |access-date=2023-06-29 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> |
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=== Symbols === |
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{{Main|Symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man|l1 = Symbols of the United Kingdom}} |
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[[File:Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee 2022 - Platinum Pageant (52123378222).jpg|thumb|Union Jack flags on [[The Mall, London|The Mall]], London]] |
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The [[flag of the United Kingdom]] is the [[Union Flag]] (also referred to as the Union Jack).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Union Jack or Union Flag? |url=https://www.flaginstitute.org/wp/uk-flags/the-union-jack-or-the-union-flag |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=The Flag Institute |language=en-GB}}</ref> It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the [[flag of England]], representing [[Saint George]], on the [[flag of Scotland]], representing [[Saint Andrew]], and was updated in 1801 with the addition of [[Saint Patrick's Flag]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=college-of-arms.gov.uk |url=https://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/resources/union-flag-approved-designs |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=The College of Arms}}</ref> Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 November 2007 |title=Welsh dragon call for Union flag |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7114248.stm |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> The [[national anthem]] of the United Kingdom is "[[God Save the King]]", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman. |
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[[Britannia]] is a [[national personification]] of the United Kingdom, originating from [[Roman Britain]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britannia on British Coins |url=http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html |access-date=25 June 2006 |publisher=Chard}}</ref> Beside [[The Lion and the Unicorn]] and the [[Welsh Dragon|dragon]] of heraldry, the [[bulldog]] is an iconic animal and commonly represented with the Union Flag.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Steve |title=Picturing the Beast |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-252-07030-3 |page=52}}</ref> A now rare personification is a character originating in the 18th century, [[John Bull]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |title=Who is John Bull |url=https://www.loc.gov/wiseguide/jan04/johnbull.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |publisher=The Library of Congress}}</ref> |
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[[National symbols of England|England]], [[National symbols of Wales|Wales]], and [[National symbols of Scotland|Scotland]] each have a number of their own national symbols, including their national flags. [[National symbols of Ireland, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] also has a number of symbols, many of which are shared with [[Republic of Ireland]]. |
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== See also == |
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{{Portal|United Kingdom|England|Northern Ireland|Scotland|Wales}} |
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* [[Outline of the United Kingdom]] |
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** [[Outline of England]] |
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** [[Outline of Northern Ireland]] |
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** [[Outline of Scotland]] |
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** [[Outline of Wales]] |
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* [[Index of United Kingdom-related articles]] |
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* [[International rankings of the United Kingdom]] |
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* [[Historiography of the United Kingdom]] |
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* [[Historiography of the British Empire]] |
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* [[United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union]] |
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== Notes == |
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{{Notelist}} |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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== External links == |
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{{Sister project links|n=Category:United Kingdom|voy=United Kingdom|d=Q145}} |
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* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18023389 United Kingdom] from [[BBC News]] |
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* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ United Kingdom]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090406224510/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/british.htm United Kingdom] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 6 April 2009) |
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* {{Curlie|Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom}} |
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* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/615557/United-Kingdom United Kingdom]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. |
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* {{Wikiatlas|United Kingdom}} |
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* {{OSM relation|62149}} |
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* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=GB Key Development Forecasts for the United Kingdom] from [[International Futures]] |
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=== Government === |
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* [http://www.gov.uk/ Official website of HM Government] |
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* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ Official website of the British Monarchy] |
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* [http://www.number10.gov.uk/ Official website of the British Prime Minister's Office] |
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=== Travel === |
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* [http://www.visitbritain.com/en/EN/ Official tourist guide to Britain] |
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نسخة دلوقتى 10:59، 13 يناير 2024
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