الفرق بين النسختين بتاع: «Franklin D. Roosevelt»
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#تحويل [[فرانكلين روزيڤيلت]] |
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{{Short description|President of the United States from 1933 to 1945}} |
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{{Redirect|FDR|other uses|FDR (disambiguation)|and|Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Use American English|date=August 2020}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}} |
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{{Infobox officeholder |
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| image = FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg <!-- SEE TALK PAGE --> |
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| caption = Official campaign portrait, 1944 |
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| alt = Franklin Roosevelt, 62, has graying hair and faces the camera. |
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| order = 32nd |
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| office = President of the United States |
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| vicepresident = {{plainlist| |
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* {{longitem|[[John Nance Garner]]<br />(1933–1941)}} |
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* {{longitem|[[Henry A. Wallace]]<br />(1941–1945)}} |
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* <!--Please stop linking his name-->{{longitem|Harry S. Truman<!--Please stop linking--><br />(Jan–Apr. 1945)}} |
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}} |
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| term_start = March 4, 1933 |
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| term_end = April 12, 1945 |
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| predecessor1 = [[Herbert Hoover]] |
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| successor1 = [[Harry S. Truman]] |
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| order2 = 44th |
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| office2 = Governor of New York |
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| term_start2 = January 1, 1929 |
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| term_end2 = December 31, 1932 |
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| predecessor2 = [[Al Smith]] |
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| successor2 = [[Herbert H. Lehman]] |
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| lieutenant2 = Herbert H. Lehman |
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| office3 = [[Assistant Secretary of the Navy]] |
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| president3 = [[Woodrow Wilson]] |
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| term_start3 = March 17, 1913 |
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| term_end3 = August 26, 1920 |
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| predecessor3 = [[Beekman Winthrop]] |
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| successor3 = [[Gordon Woodbury]] |
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| state_senate4 = New York State |
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| district4 = [[New York's 26th State Senate district|26th]] |
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| term_start4 = January 1, 1911 |
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| term_end4 = March 17, 1913 |
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| predecessor4 = [[John F. Schlosser]] |
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| successor4 = [[James E. Towner]] |
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| birth_name = Franklin Delano Roosevelt |
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| birth_date = {{birth date|1882|1|30}} |
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| birth_place = [[Hyde Park, New York]], U.S. |
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| death_date = {{death date and age|1945|4|12|1882|1|30}} |
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| death_place = [[Warm Springs, Georgia]], U.S. |
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| resting_place = [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|Springwood Estate]] |
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| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] |
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| spouse = {{marriage|[[Eleanor Roosevelt]]|March 17, 1905}} |
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| children = <!--Nbsps needed for mobile readers-->6, including [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr.|Franklin Jr.]], [[Anna Roosevelt Halsted|Anna]], [[Elliott Roosevelt (general)|Elliott]], [[James Roosevelt|James II]], and [[John Aspinwall Roosevelt|John II]] |
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| parents = {{plainlist| |
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* [[James Roosevelt I]] |
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* [[Sara Delano]] |
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}} |
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| profession = {{hlist|Lawyer|politician}} |
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| alma_mater = {{plainlist| |
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* [[Harvard University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]]) |
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* [[Columbia Law School|Columbia University]] |
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}} |
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| relatives = {{plainlist| |
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* [[Roosevelt family]] |
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* [[Delano family]] |
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}} |
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| signature = Franklin Roosevelt Signature.svg |
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| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink |
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| module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=FDR's Speech to the Congress regarding the naval attack on Pearl Harbor.ogg|title=Franklin D. Roosevelt's voice|type=speech|description=On the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] and [[United States declaration of war on Japan|declaring war on Japan]]<br />Recorded December 8, 1941}} |
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}} |
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'''Franklin Delano Roosevelt'''{{efn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|ə|n|oʊ|_|ˈ|r|oʊ|z|ə|v|ɛ|l|t|,_|-|v|əl|t}} {{respell|DEL|ə|noh|_|ROH|zə|velt|,_|-|vəlt}};<ref name="AHD">{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|Roosevelt}}</ref> }} (January 30, 1882{{spaced ndash}}April 12, 1945), commonly known by his initials '''FDR''', was an American politician and statesman who served as the 32nd [[president of the United States]] from 1933 until his death in 1945. He was a member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms in office. During his [[Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms|third and fourth terms]], he was preoccupied with [[World War II]]. |
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A member of the prominent [[Roosevelt family]], after attending university, Roosevelt began to practice law in New York City. He was elected a member of the [[New York State Senate]] from 1911 to 1913 and was then the [[assistant secretary of the Navy]] under President [[Woodrow Wilson]] during [[World War I]]. Roosevelt was [[James M. Cox]]'s running mate on the Democratic Party's ticket in the [[1920 U.S. presidential election]], but Cox lost to [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee [[Warren G. Harding]]. In 1921, Roosevelt [[Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt|contracted a paralytic illness]] that permanently paralyzed his legs. Partly through the encouragement of his wife, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], he returned to public office as [[governor of New York]] from 1929 to 1933, during which he promoted programs to combat the Great Depression besetting the U.S. In the [[1932 United States presidential election|1932 presidential election]], Roosevelt defeated Republican president [[Herbert Hoover]] in a landslide. |
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During [[first 100 days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency|his first 100 days as president]], Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the [[Great Depression]], implementing the [[New Deal]] in response to the most significant [[economic crisis]] in American history. He also built the [[New Deal coalition]], realigning American politics into the [[Fifth Party System]] and defining [[Modern liberalism in the United States|American liberalism]] throughout the middle third of the 20th century. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the [[National Recovery Administration]] and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]]. In 1936, Roosevelt [[1936 United States presidential election|won a landslide reelection]] with the economy having improved from 1933, but the economy relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 and 1938. He was unable to [[Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937|expand the Supreme Court in 1937]], the same year the [[conservative coalition]] was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]], the [[National Labor Relations Act of 1935|National Labor Relations Act]], the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]], and [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]. In 1940, he [[1940 United States presidential election|ran successfully for reelection]], becoming the only American president to serve for more than two terms. |
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With World War II looming after 1938 in addition to the [[Japanese invasion of China]] and the aggression of [[Nazi Germany]], Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China as well as the United Kingdom and the [[Soviet Union]] while the U.S. remained officially neutral. Following the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] on December 7, 1941, he obtained a declaration of war on Japan the next day and on Germany and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Italy]] a few days later. He worked closely with other national leaders in leading [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]] against the [[Axis powers]]. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a [[Europe first]] strategy. He also initiated the development of the world's first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the [[History of the United Nations|United Nations]] and other post-war institutions, even coining the term "United Nations".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=When was the term United Nations first used? |url=https://www.un.org/en/yearbook/article/when-was-term-united-nations-first-used |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> Roosevelt [[1944 United States presidential election|won reelection in 1944]] but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years. Since then, several of his actions have come under [[Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt|substantial criticism]], including his ordering of the [[internment of Japanese Americans]] in concentration camps. Nonetheless, [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|historical rankings]] consistently place him as one of the greatest American presidents. |
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==Early life and marriage== |
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===Childhood=== |
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[[File:Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.95|A young, [[Breeching (boys)|unbreeched]] Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old]] |
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the [[Hudson Valley]] town of [[Hyde Park, New York]], to businessman [[James Roosevelt I]] and his second wife, [[Sara Ann Delano]]. His parents, who were sixth cousins,{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=7}} both came from wealthy, established New York families, the [[Roosevelt family|Roosevelts]], the [[William Henry Aspinwall|Aspinwalls]] and the [[Delano family|Delanos]], respectively. Roosevelt's paternal ancestor migrated to [[New Amsterdam]] in the 17th century, and the Roosevelts succeeded as merchants and landowners.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=18}} The Delano family patriarch, [[Philip Delano]], traveled to the [[New World]] on the ''[[Fortune (Plymouth Colony ship)|Fortune]]'' in 1621, and the Delanos thrived as merchants and shipbuilders in [[Massachusetts]].{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=19}} Franklin had a half-brother, [[James Roosevelt Roosevelt|James Roosevelt "Rosy" Roosevelt]], from his father's previous marriage.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=5–6}} |
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Roosevelt's father, James, graduated from [[Harvard Law School]] in 1851 but chose not to practice law after receiving an inheritance from [[James Roosevelt (1760–1847)|his grandfather]].{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=5–6}} James Roosevelt, a prominent [[Bourbon Democrat]], once took Franklin to meet President [[Grover Cleveland]], who said to him: "My little man, I am making a strange wish for you. It is that you may never be President of the United States."{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|p=16}} Franklin's mother, the dominant influence in his early years, once declared, "My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all."{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=7}}{{Sfn|Lash|1971|p=111}} James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer [[James MacGregor Burns]] indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=4}} |
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===Education and early career=== |
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| image1 = Franklin D. Roosevelt Portrait in New York City, New York - NARA - 196675.jpg |
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| caption1 = Roosevelt in 1893, at the age of 11 |
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| image2 = FDR at Groton April 1900.JPG |
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| caption2 = Roosevelt in 1900, at the age of 18 |
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}} |
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As a child, Roosevelt learned to ride, shoot, and sail; he also learned to play polo, tennis, and golf.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=110}}{{sfn|Black|2005|p=21}} Frequent trips to Europe—beginning at age two and from age seven to fifteen—helped Roosevelt become [[List of multilingual presidents of the United States|conversant]] in German and French. Except for attending public school in Germany at age nine,{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=20–25}} Roosevelt was home-schooled by tutors until age 14. He then attended [[Groton School]], an Episcopal boarding school in [[Groton, Massachusetts]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fdrlibrary.org/fdr-biography|title=FDR Biography-The Early Years|publisher=Roosevely Library and Museum|access-date=January 25, 2022}}</ref> He was not among the more popular Groton students, who were better athletes and had rebellious streaks.<ref name= "Life Before Pres.">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt|title=FDR: Life Before the Presidency|publisher=Univ. of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs|first=William E.|last=Leuchtenburg|date=September 26, 2016|access-date=January 25, 2022}}</ref> Its headmaster, [[Endicott Peabody (educator)|Endicott Peabody]], preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Peabody remained a strong influence throughout Roosevelt's life, officiating at his wedding and visiting him as president.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=16}}{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|p=174}} |
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Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to [[Harvard College]].<ref name= "Life Before Pres."/> He was a member of the [[Alpha Delta Phi]] fraternity<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0130.html|title=Family of Wealth Gave Advantages|date=April 15, 1945|work=The New York Times|access-date=December 20, 2012}}</ref> and the [[Fly Club]],{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|p=176}} and served as a school cheerleader.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Not stated-->|title=Almanac: The 1st cheerleader|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/almanac-the-1st-cheerleader/|access-date=December 1, 2019|publisher=CBS News|date=November 2, 2014}}</ref> Roosevelt was relatively undistinguished as a student or athlete, but he became editor-in-chief of ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'' daily newspaper, a position that required ambition, energy, and the ability to manage others.{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|p=175}} He later said, "I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong."{{Sfn|Burns|1956|pp=18, 20}} |
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Roosevelt's father died in 1900, causing great distress for him.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=28–29}} The following year, Roosevelt's fifth cousin [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became President of the United States. Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=24}} He graduated from Harvard in three years in 1903 with an [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]] in history.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fdrlibrary.org/fdr-biography |title=FDR Biography |publisher=[[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]]}}</ref> He remained there for a fourth year, taking graduate courses and becoming an editor of the ''[[Harvard Crimson]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/life-before-the-presidency |title=Franklin D. Roosevelt: Life Before the Presidency |first= William E. |last=Leuchtenburg |date=October 4, 2016 |author-link= William Leuchtenburg |publisher=[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]}}</ref> |
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Roosevelt entered [[Columbia Law School]] in 1904 but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New York Bar Examination.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=28}}{{Efn|In 2008, Columbia awarded Roosevelt a posthumous [[Juris Doctor]] degree.<ref name="posthumousjd">{{cite news|title=Presidents Roosevelt Honored With Posthumous Columbia Degrees|url=https://www.nysun.com/new-york/presidents-roosevelt-honored-with-posthumous/86666/|access-date=April 6, 2018|newspaper=New York Sun|date=September 26, 2008|archive-date=April 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406101950/https://www.nysun.com/new-york/presidents-roosevelt-honored-with-posthumous/86666/}}</ref>}} In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious [[law firm]] of [[Carter Ledyard & Milburn]], working in the firm's [[admiralty law]] division.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=38–39}} |
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===Marriage, family, and marital affairs=== |
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[[File:Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt with Anna and baby James, formal portrait in Hyde Park, New York 1908.jpg|thumb|Eleanor and Franklin with their first two children, 1908]] |
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During his second year of college, Roosevelt met and proposed to Boston heiress Alice Sohier, who turned him down.<ref name= "Life Before Pres."/> Franklin then began courting his child-acquaintance and fifth cousin once removed, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], a niece of Theodore Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Rowley|2010|pp=3–6}} In 1903, Franklin proposed to Eleanor. Following resistance from Roosevelt's mother, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt were married on March 17, 1905.<ref name= "Life Before Pres."/>{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=26}} Eleanor's father, [[Elliott B. Roosevelt|Elliott]], was deceased; her uncle Theodore, who was then the president of the United States, gave away the bride.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=35–36}} The young couple moved into [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|Springwood]]. Franklin and Sara Roosevelt also provided a townhouse for the newlyweds in New York City, and Sara had a house built for herself alongside that townhouse. Eleanor never felt at home in the houses at Hyde Park or New York; however, she loved the family's vacation home on [[Campobello Island]], which Sara also gave the couple.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=54–55}} |
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Burns indicates that young Franklin Roosevelt was self-assured and at ease in the upper class. On the other hands, Eleanor was then shy and disliked social life. Initially, Eleanor stayed home to raise their children.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|pp=77–79}} As his father had done, Franklin left the raising of the children to his wife, and Eleanor delegated the task to caregivers. She later said that she knew "absolutely nothing about handling or feeding a baby."{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=57–58}} Although Eleanor thought sex was "an ordeal to be endured",{{Sfn|Winkler|2006|pp=19–20}} she and Franklin had six children. [[Anna Roosevelt Halsted|Anna]], [[James Roosevelt|James]], and [[Elliott Roosevelt (general)|Elliott]] were born in 1906, 1907, and 1910, respectively. The couple's second son, Franklin, died in infancy in 1909. Another son, also named [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.|Franklin]], was born in 1914, and the youngest child, [[John Aspinwall Roosevelt|John]], was born in 1916.<ref>{{cite book|last=Abate|first=Frank R.|title=The Oxford Desk Dictionary of People and Places|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195138726/page/329|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513872-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195138726/page/329 329]}}</ref> |
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Roosevelt had several extramarital affairs. He commenced an affair with Eleanor's social secretary, [[Lucy Mercer]], soon after she was hired in 1914. That affair was discovered by Eleanor in 1918.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=153}} Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Mercer would not marry a divorced man with five children.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=160}} Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Franklin promised never to see Mercer again. Eleanor never forgave him for the affair, and their marriage shifted to become a political partnership.{{Sfn|Winkler|2006|pp=28, 38, 48–49}} Eleanor soon established a separate home in Hyde Park at [[Val-Kill]] and devoted herself to social and political causes independent of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Franklin asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come back home and live with him again, she refused.{{Sfn|Winkler|2006|pp=202–03}} Roosevelt was not always aware of Eleanor's visits to the White House. For some time, Eleanor could not easily reach Roosevelt on the telephone without his secretary's help; Franklin, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944.{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|p=195}} |
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Franklin broke his promise to Eleanor regarding Lucy Mercer. He and Mercer maintained a formal correspondence and began seeing each other again in 1941 or earlier.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/20/weekinreview/20mcgrath.html|work=The New York Times|title=No End of the Affair|first=Charles|last=McGrath|date=April 20, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/mercer-lucy.htm|title=Lucy Page Mercer Rutherfurd|publisher=Eleanor Roosevelt Papers|access-date=February 7, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304022555/http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/mercer-lucy.htm|archive-date=March 4, 2010}}</ref> Roosevelt's son Elliott claimed that his father had a 20-year affair with his private secretary, [[Marguerite LeHand|Marguerite "Missy" LeHand]].{{sfn|Tully|2005|p=340}} Another son, James, stated that "there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed" between his father and [[Crown Princess Märtha of Norway]], who resided in the White House during part of World War II. Aides began to refer to her at the time as "the president's girlfriend",{{sfn|Goodwin|1995|p=153}} and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in the newspapers.{{sfn|Rowley|2010|p=254}} |
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==Early political career (1910–1920)== |
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===New York state senator (1910–1913)=== |
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[[File:Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1912.png|thumb|left|Roosevelt in 1912]] |
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Roosevelt cared little for the practice of law and told friends he planned to enter politics.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=58–60}} Despite his admiration for cousin Theodore, Franklin shared his father's bond with the [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], and in preparation for the [[1910 New York state election|1910 elections]], the party recruited Roosevelt to run for a seat in the [[New York State Assembly]].{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=41}} Roosevelt was a compelling recruit for the party. He had the personality and energy for campaigning, and he had the money to pay for his own campaign.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=60–62}} But Roosevelt's campaign for the state assembly ended after the Democratic incumbent, [[Lewis Stuyvesant Chanler]], chose to seek re-election. Rather than putting his political hopes on hold, Roosevelt ran for a seat in the state senate.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=60–64}} The senate district, located in [[Dutchess County, New York|Dutchess]], [[Columbia County, New York|Columbia]], and [[Putnam County, New York|Putnam]], was strongly Republican.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=65}} Roosevelt feared that opposition from Theodore could end his campaign, but Theodore encouraged his candidacy despite their party differences.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=41}} Acting as his own campaign manager, Roosevelt traveled throughout the senate district via automobile at a time when few could afford a car.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=65–66}} Due to his aggressive campaign,{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|pp=202–03}} his name recognition in the Hudson Valley, and the Democratic landslide in the [[United States elections, 1910|1910 United States elections]], Roosevelt won a surprising victory.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=34}} |
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Despite short legislative sessions, Roosevelt treated his new position as a full-time career.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=68–69}} Taking his seat on January 1, 1911, Roosevelt soon became the leader of a group of "Insurgents" in opposition to the [[Tammany Hall]] machine that dominated the state Democratic Party. In the [[1911 United States Senate election in New York|1911 U.S. Senate election]], which was determined in a joint session of the New York state legislature,{{Efn| State legislatures elected United States senators prior to the ratification of the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]] in 1913.}} Roosevelt and nineteen other Democrats caused a prolonged deadlock by opposing a series of Tammany-backed candidates. Tammany threw its backing behind [[James A. O'Gorman]], a highly regarded judge whom Roosevelt found acceptable, and O'Gorman won the election in late March.{{Sfn|Brands|2009|pp=57–60}} Roosevelt in the process became a popular figure among New York Democrats.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=34}} News articles and cartoons depicted "the second coming of a Roosevelt", sending "cold shivers down the spine of Tammany".{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|pp=205–06}} |
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Roosevelt opposed Tammany Hall by supporting New Jersey Governor [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s successful bid for the [[1912 Democratic National Convention|1912 Democratic nomination]].{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=49}} The election became a three-way contest when Theodore Roosevelt left the Republican Party to launch a third-party campaign against Wilson and sitting Republican President [[William Howard Taft]]. Franklin's decision to back Wilson over his cousin in the [[1912 United States presidential election|general election]] alienated some of his family, except Theodore.{{sfn|Black|2005|pp=62–63}} Roosevelt overcame a bout of [[typhoid fever]], and with help from journalist [[Louis McHenry Howe]], he was re-elected in the [[1912 New York state election|1912 elections]]. After the election, he served as chairman of the Agriculture Committee, and his success with farm and labor bills was a precursor to his New Deal policies years later.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|pp=44–46}} He had then become more consistently [[Progressive Era|progressive]], in support of labor and social welfare programs.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=43}} |
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===Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1919)=== |
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[[File:Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913]] |
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Roosevelt's support of Wilson led to his appointment in March 1913 as [[Assistant Secretary of the Navy]], the second-ranking official in the [[United States Navy|Navy Department]] after Secretary [[Josephus Daniels]] who paid it little attention.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=97–101}} Roosevelt had an affection for the [[United States Navy|Navy]], was well-read on the subject, and was a most ardent supporter of a large, efficient force.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=51}}<ref>J. Simon Rofe, " 'Under the Influence of Mahan': Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and their Understanding of American National Interest." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 19.4 (2008): 732–45.</ref> With Wilson's support, Daniels and Roosevelt instituted a merit-based promotion system and made other reforms to extend civilian control over the autonomous departments of the Navy.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=102–06}} Roosevelt oversaw the Navy's civilian employees and earned the respect of union leaders for his fairness in resolving disputes.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=113–14}} No strikes occurred during his seven-plus years in the office,{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=52}} as he gained valuable experience in labor issues, wartime management, naval issues, and logistics.{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|p=212}} |
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In 1914, Roosevelt ran for the seat of retiring Republican Senator [[Elihu Root]] of New York. Though he had the backing of Treasury Secretary [[William Gibbs McAdoo]] and Governor [[Martin H. Glynn]], he faced a formidable opponent in Tammany-Hall's [[James W. Gerard]].{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=122–23}} He also was without Wilson's support, as the president needed Tammany's forces for his legislation and 1916 re-election.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=56}} Roosevelt was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary by Gerard, who in turn lost the general election to Republican [[James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.]] He learned that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|pp=57, 60}} After the election, he and Tammany Hall boss [[Charles Francis Murphy]] sought accommodation and became allies.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=125}} |
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Roosevelt refocused on the Navy Department, as World War I broke out in Europe in August 1914.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=125–26}} Though he remained publicly supportive of Wilson, Roosevelt sympathized with the [[Preparedness Movement]], whose leaders strongly favored the Allied Powers and called for a military build-up.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=59–61}} The Wilson administration initiated an expansion of the Navy after the [[sinking of the RMS Lusitania]] by a German [[submarine]], and Roosevelt helped establish the [[United States Navy Reserve]] and the [[Council of National Defense]].{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=130–32}} In April 1917, after Germany declared it would engage in [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] and attacked several U.S. ships, Congress approved Wilson's call for a [[United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)|declaration of war on Germany]].{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=62–63}} |
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Roosevelt requested that he be allowed to serve as a naval officer, but Wilson insisted that he continue to serve as Assistant Secretary. For the next year, Roosevelt remained in Washington to coordinate the deployment of naval vessels and personnel, as the Navy expanded fourfold.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=65–66}}{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=139–40}} In the summer of 1918, Roosevelt traveled to Europe to inspect naval installations and meet with French and British officials. In September, he returned to the United States on board the [[SS Leviathan|USS ''Leviathan'']]. On the 11-day voyage, the [[1918 flu pandemic|pandemic influenza]] virus struck and killed many on board. Roosevelt became very ill with influenza and complicating pneumonia but recovered by the time the ship landed in New York.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Goldman|Goldman|2017|p=15}} After Germany signed an [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|armistice]] in November 1918, Daniels and Roosevelt supervised the demobilization of the Navy.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=171–72}} Against the advice of older officers such as Admiral [[William S. Benson|William Benson]]—who claimed he could not "conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation"—Roosevelt personally ordered the preservation of the Navy's [[Bureau of Aeronautics#Origins: 1920s and 1930s|Aviation Division]].{{sfn|Underwood|1991|p=11}} With the Wilson administration near an end, Roosevelt planned his next run for office. He approached [[Herbert Hoover]] about running for the 1920 Democratic presidential nomination, with Roosevelt as his running mate.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=176–77}} |
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===Campaign for vice president (1920)=== |
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[[File:Franklin D. Roosevelt and James Cox in Dayton, Ohio - NARA - 197236.jpg|thumb|left|Cox and Roosevelt in Ohio, 1920]] |
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Roosevelt's plan for Hoover to run for the nomination fell through after Hoover publicly declared himself to be a Republican, but Roosevelt decided to seek the 1920 [[Vice President of the United States|vice presidential]] nomination. After Governor [[James M. Cox]] of Ohio won the party's presidential nomination at the [[1920 Democratic National Convention]], he chose Roosevelt as his running mate, and the convention nominated him by [[acclamation]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=177–81}} Although his nomination surprised most people, he balanced the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a [[Prohibition in the United States|prohibitionist]] with a famous name.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=73}}{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|pp=215–16}} Roosevelt, then 38, resigned as Assistant Secretary after the Democratic convention and campaigned across the nation for the party ticket.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=181}} |
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During the campaign, Cox and Roosevelt defended the Wilson administration and the [[League of Nations]], both of which were unpopular in 1920.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=181–82}} Roosevelt personally supported U.S. membership in the League of Nations, but, unlike Wilson, he favored compromising with Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] and other "Reservationists".{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=175–76}} The Cox–Roosevelt ticket was defeated by Republicans [[Warren G. Harding]] and [[Calvin Coolidge]] in the [[1920 United States presidential election|presidential election]] by a wide margin, and the Republican ticket carried every state outside of the South.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=74}} Roosevelt accepted the loss without issue and later reflected that the relationships and goodwill that he built in the 1920 campaign proved to be a major asset in his 1932 campaign. The 1920 election also saw the first public participation of Eleanor Roosevelt who, with the support of [[Louis Howe]], established herself as a valuable political player.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=182–83}} After the election, Roosevelt returned to New York City, where he practiced law and served as a vice president of the [[Fidelity and Deposit Company]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=184–85}} |
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==Fallout from the Newport Sex Scandal (1921)== |
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Roosevelt's future political career came under threat when his role as head the Section A of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Navy in the [[Newport Sex Scandal]] became public knowledge. Secretary Daniels had created Section A, commonly known as the Newport Sex Squad, in 1919 to investigate homosexual activity at the US naval base in [[Newport, Rhode Island]]. Investigations by both a naval board of inquiry and the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Naval Affairs]] revealed a pattern of entrapment and intimidation by forty-one operatives acting under Roosevelt's authority. In 1921, the Senate Committee's final report concluded that Roosevelt's "direct supervision" made him "morally responsible" for these abuses and even suggested that he was unfit to hold any public office. The front-page story on the report in ''The New York Times'' on July 23, 1921, featured the headline, "Lay Navy Scandal to F. D. Roosevelt — Details Are Unprintable."<ref>{{cite book | last=Beito | first=David T. | title=The New Deal's War on the Bill of Rights: The Untold Story of FDR's Concentration Camps, Censorship, and Mass Surveillance | edition=First | pages=4–7| location=Oakland | publisher=Independent Institute | year=2023 | isbn=978-1598133561}}</ref> |
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==Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)== |
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{{Further|Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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[[File: Roosevelt in a wheelchair.jpg|thumb|Rare photograph of Roosevelt in a wheelchair, with [[Fala (dog)|Fala]] and Ruthie Bie, the daughter of caretakers at his Hyde Park estate, February 1941]] |
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Roosevelt sought to build support for a political comeback in the [[United States elections, 1922|1922 elections]], but his career was derailed by an illness which began less than three weeks after the U.S. Senate Committee on Naval Affairs issued its final report the Newport Sex Scandal.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=184–85}} While the Roosevelts were vacationing at Campobello Island in August 1921, he fell ill. His main symptoms were fever; symmetric, ascending paralysis; facial paralysis; bowel and bladder dysfunction; numbness and [[hyperesthesia]]; and a descending pattern of recovery. Roosevelt was left permanently paralyzed from the waist down and was diagnosed with [[poliomyelitis|polio]]. Historians have noted a 2003 study strongly favoring a diagnosis of [[Guillain–Barré syndrome]],<ref name="jmb-2003">{{cite journal | vauthors=Goldman AS, Schmalstieg EJ, Freeman DH, Goldman DA, Schmalstieg FC | title=What was the cause of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's paralytic illness? | journal=Journal of Medical Biography | volume=11 | issue=4 | pages=232–40 | year=2003 | pmid=14562158 | url=http://www.ehdp.com/out/jmb_2003_v11_p232-240.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130001136/http://www.ehdp.com/out/jmb_2003_v11_p232-240.pdf |archive-date=November 30, 2012 |url-status=live | doi= 10.1177/096777200301100412| s2cid=39957366 | access-date=July 4, 2017}}</ref> but have continued to describe his paralysis according to the initial diagnosis.{{sfn|Alter|2006|p=355}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lomazow|first1=Steven|last2=Fettmann|first2=Eric|title=FDR's Deadly Secret|year=2010|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rose|first=David M.|title=Friends and Partners: The Legacy of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Basil O'Connor in the History of Polio|year=2016|page=179}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wooten|first=Heather Green|title=The Polio Years in Texas|year=2009|page=192}}</ref> |
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Though his mother favored his retirement from public life, Roosevelt, his wife, and Roosevelt's close friend and adviser, Louis Howe, were all determined that he continue his political career.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=195–96}} He convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to running for public office again.{{sfn|Rowley|2010|p=125}} He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs, by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane.{{sfn|Rowley|2010|p=120}} He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability.{{sfn|Ward|Burns|2014|p=332}} However, his disability was well known before and during his presidency and became a major part of his image. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=220}} |
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Beginning in 1925, Roosevelt spent most of his time in the Southern United States, at first on his houseboat, the ''Larooco''.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=213–14}} Intrigued by the potential benefits of [[hydrotherapy]], he established [[Warm Springs Historic District|a rehabilitation center]] at [[Warm Springs, Georgia]], in 1926. To create the rehabilitation center, he assembled a staff of physical therapists and used most of his inheritance to purchase the Merriweather Inn. In 1938, he founded the [[National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis]], leading to the development of polio vaccines.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=215–19}} |
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Roosevelt maintained contacts with the Democratic Party during the 1920s, and he remained active in New York politics while also establishing contacts in the South, particularly in Georgia.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=255–56}} He issued an open letter endorsing [[Al Smith]]'s successful campaign in New York's 1922 gubernatorial election, which both aided Smith and showed Roosevelt's continuing relevance as a political figure.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=87–88}} Roosevelt and Smith came from different backgrounds and never fully trusted one another, but Roosevelt supported Smith's progressive policies, while Smith was happy to have the backing of the prominent and well-respected Roosevelt.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=87–96}} |
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Roosevelt gave presidential nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions; the speech at the 1924 convention marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.{{sfn|Morgan|1985|pp=267, 269–72, 286–87}} That year, the Democrats were badly divided between an urban wing, led by Smith, and a conservative, rural wing, led by [[William Gibbs McAdoo]]. On the 101st ballot, the nomination went to [[John W. Davis]], a compromise candidate who suffered a landslide defeat in the [[1924 United States presidential election|1924 presidential election]]. Like many others throughout the United States, Roosevelt did not abstain from alcohol during the Prohibition era, but publicly he sought to find a compromise on Prohibition acceptable to both wings of the party.{{sfn|Black|2005|pp=160–67}} |
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In 1925, Smith appointed Roosevelt to the [[Taconic State Park]] Commission, and his fellow commissioners chose him as chairman.{{sfn|Caro|1974|pp=289–91}} In this role, he came into conflict with [[Robert Moses]], a Smith protégé,{{sfn|Caro|1974|pp=289–91}} who was the primary force behind the [[Long Island State Park Commission]] and the New York State Council of Parks.{{sfn|Caro|1974|pp=289–91}} Roosevelt accused Moses of using the name recognition of prominent individuals including Roosevelt to win political support for state parks, but then diverting funds to the ones Moses favored on Long Island, while Moses worked to block the appointment of Howe to a salaried position as the Taconic commission's secretary.{{sfn|Caro|1974|pp=289–91}} Roosevelt served on the commission until the end of 1928,{{sfn|F. Roosevelt, E. Roosevelt|p=21}} and his contentious relationship with Moses continued as their careers progressed.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=231}} |
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Peace was the catchword of the 1920s, and in 1923 [[Edward Bok]] established the $100,000 [[American Peace Award]] for the best plan to bring peace to the world. Roosevelt had leisure time and interest, and he drafted a plan for the contest. He never submitted it because his wife Eleanor Roosevelt was selected as a judge for the prize. His plan called for a new world organization that would replace the League of Nations.<ref>Conrad Black, ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: champion of freedom'' (Hachette UK, 2012) p 160.</ref> Although Roosevelt had been the vice-presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket of 1920 that supported the League of Nations, by 1924 he was ready to scrap it. His draft of a "Society of Nations" accepted the reservations proposed by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] in the 1919 Senate debate. The new Society would not become involved in the Western Hemisphere, where the Monroe doctrine held sway. It would not have any control over military forces. Although Roosevelt's plan was never made public, he thought about the problem a great deal and incorporated some of his 1924 ideas into the design for the United Nations in 1944–1945.<ref>Selig Adler, ''The isolationist impulse: its 20th-century reaction'' (1957) pp 200–201.</ref> |
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==Governor of New York (1929–1932)== |
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{{Main|Governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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[[File:Governor Roosevelt and Al Smith.jpg|thumb|upright=.80|left|Gov. Roosevelt with his predecessor [[Al Smith]], 1930]] |
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Smith, the Democratic presidential nominee in the [[1928 United States presidential election|1928 election]], asked Roosevelt to run for governor of New York in the [[1928 New York state election|1928 state election]].{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=100}} Roosevelt initially resisted, as he was reluctant to leave Warm Springs and feared a Republican landslide in 1928.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=96–98}} Party leaders eventually convinced him only he could defeat the Republican gubernatorial nominee, New York Attorney General [[Albert Ottinger]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=223–25}} He won the party's gubernatorial nomination by acclamation and again turned to Howe to lead his campaign. Roosevelt was also joined on the campaign trail by associates [[Samuel Rosenman]], [[Frances Perkins]], and [[James Farley]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=225–28}} While Smith lost the presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was elected governor by a one-percent margin,{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=101}} and became a contender in the next presidential election.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=229}} |
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Roosevelt proposed the construction of hydroelectric power plants and addressed the ongoing [[Farm crisis#Crisis of the 1920s and 1930s|farm crisis of the 1920s]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=237–38}} Relations between Roosevelt and Smith suffered after he chose not to retain key Smith appointees like Moses.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=230–33}} He and his wife Eleanor established an understanding for the rest of his career; she would dutifully serve as the governor's wife but would also be free to pursue her own agenda and interests.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=235–37}} He also began holding "[[fireside chat]]s", in which he directly addressed his constituents via radio, often pressuring the [[New York State Legislature]] to advance his agenda.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=238–39}} |
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In October 1929, the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|Wall Street Crash]] occurred, and with it came the [[Great Depression in the United States]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=240–41}} Roosevelt saw the seriousness of the situation and established a state employment commission. He also became the first governor to publicly endorse the idea of [[unemployment insurance]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=242–43}} |
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When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: "that progressive government by its very terms must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never-ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization."{{sfn|Burns|1956|pp=119–20}} He ran on a platform that called for aid to farmers, [[full employment]], unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=243–44}} He was elected to a second term by a 14% margin.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=121}} |
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Roosevelt proposed an economic relief package and the establishment of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to distribute those funds. Led first by [[Jesse I. Straus]] and then by [[Harry Hopkins]], the agency assisted well over one-third of New York's population between 1932 and 1938.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=250–52}} Roosevelt also began an investigation into corruption in New York City among the judiciary, the police force, and organized crime, prompting the creation of the [[Seabury Commission]]. The Seabury investigations exposed an extortion ring, led many public officials to be removed from office, and made the decline of [[Tammany Hall]] inevitable.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allen|first=Oliver E.|title=The Tiger: The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tigerrisefalloft00alle/page/233 233–50]|date=1993|publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-201-62463-2|url=https://archive.org/details/tigerrisefalloft00alle/page/233}}</ref> |
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Roosevelt supported reforestation with the Hewitt Amendment in 1931, which gave birth to New York's State Forest system.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History Of State Forest Program – NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation|url=https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/4982.html|access-date=June 28, 2021|website=dec.ny.gov}}</ref> |
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==1932 presidential election== |
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{{Main|1932 United States presidential election}} |
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[[File:Vincenzo Laviosa - Franklin D. Roosevelt - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt in the early 1930s]] |
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As the [[1932 United States presidential election|1932 presidential election]] approached, Roosevelt turned his attention to national politics, established a campaign team led by Howe and Farley, and a "[[brain trust]]" of policy advisers, primarily composed of [[Columbia University]] and [[Harvard University]] professors.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=261–63}} There were some who were not so sanguine about his chances, such as [[Walter Lippmann]], the dean of political commentators, who observed of Roosevelt: "He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be president."<ref name = "FDR Campaigns">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/campaigns-and-elections|title=FDR: Campaigns and Elections|publisher=Univ. of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs|last=Leuchtenburg|first=William E.|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=January 28, 2022}}</ref> |
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However, Roosevelt's efforts as governor to address the effects of the depression in his own state established him as the front-runner for the 1932 Democratic presidential nomination.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> Roosevelt rallied the [[Progressivism in the United States|progressive]] supporters of the Wilson administration while also appealing to many conservatives, establishing himself as the leading candidate in the [[Southern United States|South]] and West. The chief opposition to Roosevelt's candidacy came from Northeastern conservatives, Speaker of the House [[John Nance Garner]] of Texas and Al Smith, the 1928 Democratic presidential nominee.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> |
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Roosevelt entered the convention with a delegate lead due to his success in the [[Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1932|1932 Democratic primaries]], but most delegates entered the convention unbound to any particular candidate. On the first presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt received the votes of more than half but less than two-thirds of the delegates, with Smith finishing in a distant second place. Roosevelt then promised the vice-presidential nomination to Garner, who controlled the votes of Texas and California; Garner threw his support behind Roosevelt after the third ballot, and Roosevelt clinched the nomination on the fourth ballot.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> Roosevelt flew in from New York to Chicago after learning that he had won the nomination, becoming the first major-party presidential nominee to accept the nomination in person.{{Sfn|Brands|2009|pp=232–36, 246–51}} His appearance was essential, to show himself as vigorous, despite the ravaging disease that disabled him physically.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> |
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In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, "I pledge you, I pledge myself to a [[new deal]] for the American people... This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms."{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=139}} Roosevelt promised securities regulation, [[tariffs in United States history|tariff]] reduction, farm relief, government-funded public works, and other government actions to address the Great Depression.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=276–77}} Reflecting changing public opinion, the Democratic platform included a call for the repeal of Prohibition; Roosevelt himself had not taken a public stand on the issue prior to the convention but promised to uphold the party platform.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=266–67}} Otherwise, Roosevelt's primary campaign strategy was one of caution, intent upon avoiding mistakes that would distract from Hoover's failings on the economy. His statements attacked the incumbent and included no other specific policies or programs.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> |
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After the convention, Roosevelt won endorsements from several progressive Republicans, including [[George W. Norris]], [[Hiram Johnson]], and [[Robert M. La Follette Jr.|Robert La Follette Jr.]]{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=278}} He also reconciled with the party's conservative wing, and even Al Smith was persuaded to support the Democratic ticket.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=279}} Hoover's handling of the [[Bonus Army]] further damaged the incumbent's popularity, as newspapers across the country criticized the use of force to disperse assembled veterans.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=282–84}} |
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[[File:ElectoralCollege1932.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|1932 electoral vote results]] |
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Roosevelt won 57% of the popular vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932–36 elections to be a [[political realignment]]. Roosevelt's victory was enabled by the creation of the [[New Deal coalition]], small farmers, the Southern whites, Catholics, big city political machines, labor unions, northern black Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals, and political liberals.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|1963|pp=183–96}} The creation of the New Deal coalition transformed American politics and started what political scientists call the "New Deal Party System" or the [[Fifth Party System]].{{sfn|Sternsher|1975|pp=127–49}} Between the Civil War and 1929, Democrats had [[Party divisions of United States Congresses|rarely controlled both houses of Congress]] and had won just four of seventeen presidential elections; from 1932 to 1979, Democrats won eight of twelve presidential elections and generally controlled both houses of Congress.{{sfn|Campbell|2006|pp=127–49}} |
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===Transition and assassination attempt=== |
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{{Main|Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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Roosevelt was elected in November 1932 but like his predecessors did not take office until the following March.{{efn|Roosevelt was the last president inaugurated on March 4. The [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twentieth Amendment]] changed presidential inaugurations to January 20, from 1937.}} After the election, President Hoover sought to convince Roosevelt to renounce much of his campaign platform and to endorse the Hoover administration's policies.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=290–91}} Roosevelt refused Hoover's request to develop a joint program to stop the economic decline, claiming that it would tie his hands and that Hoover had the power to act.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=146}} |
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During the transition, Roosevelt chose Howe as his chief of staff, and Farley as Postmaster General. Frances Perkins, as Secretary of Labor, became the first woman appointed to a cabinet position.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> [[William H. Woodin]], a Republican industrialist close to Roosevelt, was the choice for Secretary of the Treasury, while Roosevelt chose Senator [[Cordell Hull]] of Tennessee as Secretary of State. [[Harold L. Ickes]] and [[Henry A. Wallace]], two progressive Republicans, were selected for the roles of Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Agriculture, respectively.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=292–95}} |
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In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt by [[Giuseppe Zangara]], who expressed a "hate for all rulers." As he was attempting to shoot Roosevelt, Zangara was struck by a woman with her purse; he instead mortally wounded Chicago Mayor [[Anton Cermak]], who was sitting alongside Roosevelt.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=147}}<ref>{{cite news|first=Amy|last=Davidson|title=The FDR New Yorker cover that never ran|date=May 5, 2012|url=https://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/closeread/2012/05/the-fdr-new-yorker-cover-that-never-ran.html|newspaper=The New Yorker}}</ref> |
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==Presidency (1933–1945)== |
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As president, Roosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions but made all the major decisions, regardless of delays, inefficiency, or resentment. Analyzing the president's administrative style, Burns concludes: |
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{{blockquote|text=The president stayed in charge of his administration...by drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of people...by deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativity...by handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision-making agencies, such as the Cabinet...and always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating.{{sfn|Burns|1970|pp=347–48}} }} |
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===First and second terms (1933–1941)=== |
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{{Main|Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms}} |
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{{listen |
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When Roosevelt was [[First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt|inaugurated]] on March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the [[The Great Depression|worst depression in its history]]. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed, and farmers were in deep trouble as prices had fallen by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million people were homeless. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states—as well as the District of Columbia—had closed their banks.{{sfn|Alter|2006|p=190}} |
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Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as "relief, recovery, and reform." Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal, and reform was required of the financial and banking systems. Through Roosevelt's series of 30 "[[fireside chat]]s", he presented his proposals directly to the American public as a series of radio addresses.{{sfn|Burns|1956|pp=157, 167–68}} Energized by his own victory over paralytic illness, he used persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit.{{sfn|Tobin|2013|pp=4–7}} |
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====First New Deal (1933–1934)==== |
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{{Main|New Deal}} |
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On his second day in office, Roosevelt declared a four-day national "bank holiday", to end the run by depositors seeking to withdraw funds.<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/domestic-affairs|title=FDR: Domestic Affairs|publisher=Univ. of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs|last=Leuchtenburg|first=William E.|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=January 29, 2022}}</ref> He called for a special session of Congress on March 9, when Congress passed, almost sight unseen, the [[Emergency Banking Act]].<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> The act, first developed by the Hoover administration and Wall Street bankers, gave the president the power to determine the opening and closing of banks and authorized the [[Federal Reserve Bank]]s to issue banknotes.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=147–48}} The "[[Hundred Days Congress|first 100 Days]]" of the [[73rd United States Congress]] saw an unprecedented amount of legislation and set a benchmark against which future presidents have been compared.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=312}}<ref name="kliptak1">{{cite news|last1=Liptak|first1=Kevin|title=History of measuring presidents' first 100 days|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/23/politics/donald-trump-history-100-days/index.html|access-date=October 9, 2017|publisher=CNN|date=April 23, 2017}}</ref> When the banks reopened on Monday, March 15, stock prices rose by 15 percent and in the following weeks over $1 billion was returned to bank vaults, ending the bank panic.<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> On March 22, Roosevelt signed the [[Cullen–Harrison Act]], which brought Prohibition to a close.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=151–52}} |
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[[File:FDR video montage.ogg|thumb|left|Collection of video clips of Roosevelt]] |
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Roosevelt saw the establishment of a number of agencies and measures designed to provide relief for the unemployed and others. The [[Federal Emergency Relief Administration]] (FERA), under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, distributed relief to state governments.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=322}} The [[Public Works Administration]] (PWA), under Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, oversaw the construction of large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, and schools.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=322}} The most popular of all New Deal agencies—and Roosevelt's favorite—was the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed men to work in rural projects. Roosevelt also expanded Hoover's [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]], which financed railroads and industry. Congress gave the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) broad regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt also set up the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA) to increase commodity prices, by paying farmers to leave land uncultivated and cut herds.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=318–23}} In many instances, crops were plowed under and livestock killed, while many Americans died of hunger and were ill-clothed; critics labeled such policies "utterly idiotic."<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> On the positive side, nothing did more to rescue the farm family from isolation than the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), which brought electricity for the first time to millions of rural homes and with it such conveniences as radios and washing machines."<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> |
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Reform of the economy was the goal of the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] (NIRA) of 1933. It sought to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to establish rules such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the rules with NIRA officials, who suspended [[United States antitrust law|antitrust]] laws in return for better wages. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] in May 1935 declared NIRA unconstitutional by a unanimous decision, to Roosevelt's chagrin.{{Sfn|Hawley|1995|p=124}} He reformed financial regulations with the [[1933 Banking Act|Glass–Steagall Act]], creating the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC) to underwrite savings deposits. The act also limited affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=331–32}} In 1934, the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|Securities and Exchange Commission]] was created to regulate the trading of [[Security (finance)|securities]], while the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) was established to [[Telecommunications policy of the United States|regulate telecommunications]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=346}} |
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Recovery was sought through federal spending, as the NIRA included $3.3 billion (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|3.3|1933|r=2}} billion in {{Inflation-year|US}}) of spending through the Public Works Administration.{{sfn|Savage|1991|p=160}} Roosevelt worked with Senator Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history—the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA)—which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. However, natives criticized the TVA for displacing thousands of people for these projects.<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> The Soil Conservation Service trained farmers in the proper methods of cultivation, and with the TVA, Roosevelt became the father of soil conservation.<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> [[Executive Order 6102]] declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the U.S. Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce. The goal was to counter the [[deflation]] which was paralyzing the economy.{{Sfn|Freidel|1952–1973|pp=4, 320–39}} |
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Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget. This included a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans benefits. 500,000 veterans and widows were removed from the pension rolls, and benefits were reduced for the remainder. Federal salaries were cut and spending on research and education was reduced. The veterans were well organized and strongly protested, so most benefits were restored or increased by 1934.{{Sfn|Freidel|1952–1973|pp=4, 448–52}} Veterans groups such as the [[American Legion]] and the [[Veterans of Foreign Wars]] won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President's veto and passed the [[Adjusted Compensation Payment Act|Bonus Act]] in January 1936.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=249}} It pumped sums equal to 2% of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Joshua K.|last=Hausman|title=Fiscal Policy and Economic Recovery: The Case of the 1936 Veterans' Bonus|journal=[[American Economic Review]]|volume=106|issue=4|pages=1100–43|date=April 2016|doi=10.1257/aer.20130957|url=http://behl.berkeley.edu/files/2013/02/WP2013-06_Hausman.pdf|access-date=October 22, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031231820/http://behl.berkeley.edu/files/2013/02/WP2013-06_Hausman.pdf|archive-date=October 31, 2014 }}</ref> |
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====Second New Deal (1935–1936)==== |
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{{Main|Second New Deal}} |
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[[File:Signing Of The Social Security Act.jpg|thumb|left|Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act into law, August 14, 1935.]] |
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Roosevelt expected that his party would lose seats in the [[United States elections, 1934|1934 Congressional elections]], as the president's party had done in most previous [[United States midterm election|midterm elections]]. Unexpectedly the Democrats picked up seats in both houses of Congress. Empowered by the public's vote of confidence, the first item on Roosevelt's agenda in the [[74th United States Congress|74th Congress]] was the creation of a [[social insurance]] program.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=349–51}} The [[Social Security Act]] established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor, and the sick. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund, saying, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program."<ref>[http://www.ssa.gov/history/Gulick.html Social Security History]. Ssa.gov. Retrieved July 14, 2013.</ref> Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time, the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children, and disabled people.{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=670}} Against Roosevelt's original intention for universal coverage, the act excluded farmers, domestic workers, and other groups, which made up about forty percent of the labor force.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=353}} |
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Roosevelt consolidated the various relief organizations, though some, like the PWA, continued to exist. After winning Congressional authorization for further funding of relief efforts, he established the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA). Under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, the WPA employed over three million people in its first year of operations. It undertook numerous massive construction projects in cooperation with local governments. It also set up the [[National Youth Administration]] and arts organizations.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=353–56}} |
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[[File:1936 FDR "Don't Be Fooled by Figures" Re-election handbill.jpg|thumb|1936 re-election handbill for Roosevelt promoting his economic policy]] |
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The [[National Labor Relations Act]] guaranteed workers the right to [[collective bargaining]] through unions of their own choice. The act also established the [[National Labor Relations Board]] (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and suppress repeated labor disturbances. The act did not compel employers to reach an agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|p=291}} The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector.<ref>Colin Gordon, ''New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in America, 1920–1935'' (1994) p. 225</ref> When the [[Flint sit-down strike]] threatened the production of [[General Motors]], Roosevelt broke with the precedent set by many former presidents and refused to intervene; the strike ultimately led to the unionization of both General Motors and its rivals in the American automobile industry.{{Sfn|Brands|2009|pp=463–67}} |
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While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by [[Al Smith]], fought back with the [[American Liberty League]], savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with socialism.{{Sfn|Fried|2001|pp=120–23}} But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide.{{Sfn|Fried|2001|pp=120–23}} By contrast, labor unions, energized by labor legislation, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's re-elections in 1936, 1940, and 1944.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=350}} |
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Burns suggests that Roosevelt's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology and that he "was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and [[debouch]] into the plain below."{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=226}} Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary. "The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation," he wrote. "It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something."<ref>{{cite book|last=Roosevelt|first=Franklin Delano|title=Looking forward|url={{GBurl|id=wJwnAQAAMAAJ|p=141}}|year=1933|publisher=John Day|page=141}}</ref> |
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====Election of 1936==== |
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{{Main|1936 United States presidential election}} |
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[[File:ElectoralCollege1936.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|1936 electoral vote results]] |
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Eight million workers remained unemployed in 1936, and though economic conditions had improved since 1932, they remained sluggish. By 1936, Roosevelt had lost the backing he once held in the business community because of his support for the NLRB and the Social Security Act.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> The Republicans had few alternative candidates and nominated Kansas Governor [[Alf Landon]], a little-known bland candidate whose chances were damaged by the public re-emergence of the still-unpopular Herbert Hoover.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=364–66}} While Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs and continued to attack Hoover, Landon sought to win voters who approved of the goals of the New Deal but disagreed with its implementation.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=371–72}} |
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An attempt by Louisiana Senator [[Huey Long]] to organize a left-wing third party collapsed after Long's assassination in 1935. The remnants, helped by Father [[Charles Coughlin]], supported [[William Lemke]] of the newly formed [[Union Party (United States)|Union Party]].{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=360–61}} Roosevelt won re-nomination with little opposition at the [[1936 Democratic National Convention]], while his allies overcame Southern resistance to permanently abolish the long-established rule that had required Democratic presidential candidates to win the votes of two-thirds of the delegates rather than a simple majority.{{Efn|Biographer [[Jean Edward Smith]] notes that "the significance of the repeal of the two-thirds rule...is difficult to overstate. Not only did the power of the South in the Democratic party diminish, but without the repeal, it is open to question whether FDR could have been renominated in 1940."{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=366}}}} |
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In the election against Landon and a third-party candidate, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except [[Maine]] and [[Vermont]].{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=284}} The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the [[List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin|popular vote]].{{Efn|The [[1964 United States presidential election|1964]] Democratic ticket of [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and [[Hubert Humphrey]] would later set a new record, taking 61.1% of the popular vote}} Democrats also expanded their majorities in Congress, winning control of over three-quarters of the seats in each house. The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business, they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans, the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=373–75}} Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities. He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote, 81 percent of Catholics, 80 percent of union members, 76 percent of Southerners, 76 percent of blacks in northern cities, and 75 percent of people on relief. Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mary E. Stuckey|title=Voting Deliberatively: FDR and the 1936 Presidential Campaign|url={{GBurl|id=OootCgAAQBAJ|pg=PT19}}|year=2015|publisher=Penn State UP|page=19|isbn=978-0-271-07192-3}}</ref> |
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====Supreme Court fight and second term legislation==== |
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{{See also|Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates|Hughes Court|Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination}} |
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The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA. The more conservative members of the court upheld the principles of the [[Lochner era]], which saw numerous economic regulations struck down on the basis of [[freedom of contract]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kalman|first1=Laura|title=The Constitution, the Supreme Court, and the New Deal|journal=The American Historical Review|date=October 2005|volume=110|issue=4|pages=1052–80|doi=10.1086/ahr.110.4.1052}}</ref> Roosevelt proposed the [[Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937]], which would have allowed him to appoint an additional Justice for each incumbent Justice over the age of 70; in 1937, there were six Supreme Court Justices over the age of 70. The [[Supreme Court of the United States#Size of the court|size of the Court]] had been set at nine since the passage of the [[Judiciary Act of 1869]], and Congress had altered the number of Justices six other times throughout U.S. history.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=379–82}} Roosevelt's "[[Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937|court packing]]" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner since it upset the separation of powers.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=312}} A bipartisan coalition of liberals and conservatives of both parties opposed the bill, and Chief Justice [[Charles Evans Hughes]] broke with precedent by publicly advocating the defeat of the bill. Any chance of passing the bill ended with the death of Senate Majority Leader [[Joseph Taylor Robinson]] in July 1937.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=384–89}} |
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Starting with the 1937 case of ''[[West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish]]'', the court began to take a more favorable view of economic regulations. Historians have described this as, "the switch in time that saved nine."<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> That same year, Roosevelt appointed a Supreme Court Justice for the first time, and by 1941, seven of the nine Justices had been appointed by Roosevelt.{{Efn|The two Justices who Roosevelt did not originally appoint to the Court were [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] and [[Owen Roberts]]. However, in 1941, Roosevelt elevated Stone to the position of Chief Justice.}}<ref name="leuch">{{cite magazine|last1=Leuchtenburg|first1=William E.|title=When Franklin Roosevelt Clashed with the Supreme Court – and Lost|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-franklin-roosevelt-clashed-with-the-supreme-court-and-lost-78497994/|access-date=March 1, 2016|magazine=Smithsonian Magazine|date=May 2005}}</ref> After ''Parrish'', the Court shifted its focus from [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]] of economic regulations to the protection of [[Civil liberties in the United States|civil liberties]].<ref>Leuchtenburg, E. (1996). ''The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-511131-1}}</ref> Four of Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees, [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Robert H. Jackson]], |
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[[Hugo Black]], and [[William O. Douglas]], were particularly influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the Court.<ref name="jblake1">{{cite news|last1=Blake|first1=John|title=How FDR unleashed his Supreme Court 'scorpions'|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/12/14/FDR.supremecourt/index.html|access-date=October 10, 2017|publisher=CNN|date=December 14, 2010}}</ref><ref name="belknap">{{cite book|last1=Belknap|first1=Michal|title=The Vinson Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|pages=162–63|url={{GBurl|id=oeFRJj8dVAUC|q=vinson court}}|access-date=March 3, 2016|isbn=978-1-57607-201-1}}</ref> |
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With Roosevelt's influence on the wane following the failure of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, conservative Democrats joined with Republicans to block the implementation of further New Deal programs.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=390–91}} Roosevelt did manage to pass some legislation, including the [[Housing Act of 1937]], a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]] (FLSA) of 1938, which was the last major piece of New Deal legislation. The FLSA outlawed [[Child labor laws in the United States|child labor]], established a federal [[Minimum wage in the United States|minimum wage]], and required [[overtime]] pay for certain employees who work in excess of [[Eight-hour day|forty-hours per week]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=408–09}} He also won passage of the [[Reorganization Act of 1939]] and subsequently created the [[Executive Office of the President of the United States|Executive Office of the President]], making it "the nerve center of the federal administrative system."{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=187–88}} When the economy began to deteriorate again in mid-1937, during the onset of the [[recession of 1937–1938]], Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and [[monopoly power]] in the United States, alleging that the recession was the result of a [[capital strike]] and even ordering the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] to look for a criminal conspiracy (of which they found none). He then asked Congress for $5 billion (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|5|1937|r=2}} billion in {{Inflation-year|US}}) in relief and public works funding. This managed to eventually create as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges, and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archaeological excavations—investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources. Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization, and regional planning measures, all of which were leftovers from a regular session. According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt's inability to settle on a basic economic program.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=320}} |
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Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress, Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one of the ten targeted, a conservative Democrat from New York City.<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> In the [[United States elections, 1938|November 1938 elections]], Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats, with losses concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator [[Robert A. Taft|Robert Taft]] formed a [[Conservative coalition]] with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to enact his domestic proposals.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|1963|pp=262–63, 271–73}} Despite their opposition to Roosevelt's domestic policies, many of these conservative Congressmen would provide crucial support for Roosevelt's foreign policy before and during World War II.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=440–41}} |
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====Conservation and the environment==== |
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Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. Although he was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on Theodore Roosevelt's scale, his growth of the national systems was comparable.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=19}} When Franklin was Governor of New York, the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration was essentially a state-level predecessor of the federal Civilian Conservation Corps, with 10,000 or more men building [[fire trail]]s, combating [[soil erosion]] and planting tree seedlings in marginal farmland in the state of New York.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FDR's Conservation Legacy (U.S. National Park Service)|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/fdr-s-conservation-legacy.htm|access-date=June 28, 2021|website=nps.gov}}</ref> As President, Roosevelt was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the [[United States National Park|National Park]] and [[United States National Forest|National Forest]] systems.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Leshy|first=John|editor1-last=Woolner|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Henderson|editor2-first=Henry L.|title=FDR and the Environment|publisher=Springer|date=2009|chapter=FDR's Expansion of Our National Patrimony: A Model for Leadership|pages= 177–78|isbn=978-0-230-10067-1}}</ref> Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade to 15.5 million in 1939.<ref name="America's Idea">{{cite web|title=The National Parks: America's Best Idea: History Episode 5: 1933–1945|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/history/ep5|publisher=PBS|access-date=April 23, 2016}}</ref> The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] enrolled 3.4 million young men and built {{convert|13,000|mi|km|abbr=off}} of trails, planted two billion trees, and upgraded {{convert|125,000|mi|km|abbr=off}} of dirt roads. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems.{{sfn|Brinkley|2016|pp=170–86}}<ref>{{cite journal|first=Neil M.|last=Maher|title=A New Deal Body Politic: Landscape, Labor, and the Civilian Conservation Corps|journal=[[Environmental History]]|volume=7|issue=3|pages=435–61|date=July 2002|jstor=3985917|url=http://environmentalhistory.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/7-3_Maher.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602073403/http://environmentalhistory.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/7-3_Maher.pdf |archive-date=June 2, 2016 |url-status=live|doi=10.2307/3985917|s2cid=144800756 }}</ref> |
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====GNP and unemployment rates==== |
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{{See also|Great Depression in the United States#Roosevelt's New Deal}} |
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:1em; float:right; clear:right;" |
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|+Unemployment rates{{Efn|This table shows the estimated unemployment related as calculated by two economists. Michael Darby's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as employed, while Stanley Lebergott's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as unemployed<ref name="margo1">{{cite journal|last1=Margo|first1=Robert A.|title=Employment and Unemployment in the 1930s|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|date=Spring 1993|volume=7|issue=2|pages=42–43|doi=10.1257/jep.7.2.41|citeseerx=10.1.1.627.1613|s2cid=26369842}}</ref>}} |
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|- |
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!Year!!Lebergott!!Darby |
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|- |
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|''1929''||''3.2''||''3.2'' |
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|- |
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|''1932''||''23.6''||''22.9'' |
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|- |
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|1933||24.9||20.6 |
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|- |
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|1934||21.7||16.0 |
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|- |
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|1935||20.1||14.2 |
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|- |
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|1936||16.9||9.9 |
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|- |
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|1937||14.3||9.1 |
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|- |
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|1938||19.0||12.5 |
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|- |
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|1939||17.2||11.3 |
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|- |
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|1940||14.6||9.5 |
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|} |
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Government spending increased from 8.0% of the gross national product (GNP) [[Herbert Hoover#Taxes, revenues, and deficits|under Hoover]] in 1932 to 10.2% in 1936. The [[national debt]] as a percentage of the GNP had more than doubled under Hoover from 16% to 40% of the GNP in early 1933. It held steady at close to 40% as late as fall 1941, then grew rapidly during the war.<ref name="Historical Statistics 1976">{{cite book|title=Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970|url={{GBurl|id=e91TplHLeQAC|pg=PP1}}|year=1976|publisher=The Bureau of the U.S. Census|pages=Y457, Y493, F32}}</ref> The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940 in eight years of peacetime, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in five years of wartime.<ref name="Historical Statistics 1976"/> Unemployment fell dramatically during Roosevelt's first term. It increased in 1938 ("a depression within a depression") but continually declined after 1938.<ref name="margo1"/> Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%.<ref>{{cite news|type=graphic|date=July 2, 2003|url=http://graphics7.nytimes.com/images/2003/07/02/business/03JOBSch450.gif|format=GIF|work=The New York Times|title=Presidents and Job Growth}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970|url={{GBurl|id=e91TplHLeQAC|pg=PP1}}|year=1976|publisher=The Bureau of the U.S. Census|page=F31}}</ref> |
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====Foreign policy (1933–1941)==== |
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{{Main|Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration}} |
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[[File:Vargas e Roosevelt.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt with Brazilian President [[Getúlio Vargas]] and other dignitaries in Brazil, 1936]] |
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The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the [[Good Neighbor Policy]], which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy toward [[Latin America]]. The United States frequently intervened in Latin America following the promulgation of the [[Monroe Doctrine]] in 1823, and the United States occupied several Latin American nations in the [[Banana Wars]] that occurred following the [[Spanish–American War]] of 1898. After Roosevelt took office, he [[United States occupation of Haiti|withdrew]] U.S. forces from [[Haiti]] and reached new treaties with [[Cuba]] and [[Panama]], ending their status as U.S. [[protectorate]]s. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the [[Montevideo Convention]] on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries.{{Sfn|Leuchtenburg|1963|pp=203–10}} Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet Union, which the United States had refused to recognize since the 1920s.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=341–43}} He hoped to renegotiate the Russian debt from World War I and open trade relations, but no progress was made on either issue and "both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord."{{sfn|Doenecke|Stoler|2005|p=18}} |
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The rejection of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919–1920 marked the dominance of [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionism]] in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. The isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by Senator [[Gerald Nye]] and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the "merchants of death" in the U.S. from selling arms abroad.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=254}} This effort took the form of the [[Neutrality Acts of 1930s|Neutrality Acts]]; the president was refused a provision he requested giving him the discretion to allow the sale of arms to victims of aggression.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=255}} He largely acquiesced to Congress's non-interventionist policies in the early-to-mid 1930s.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=417–18}} In the interim, [[Kingdom of Italy under Fascism (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] under [[Benito Mussolini]] proceeded to [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|overcome Ethiopia]], and the Italians joined [[Nazi Germany]] under [[Adolf Hitler]] in supporting General [[Francisco Franco]] and the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalist]] cause in the [[Spanish Civil War]].{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=256}} As that conflict drew to a close in early 1939, Roosevelt expressed regret in not aiding the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Spanish Republicans]].{{Sfn|Dallek|1995|p=180}} When [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japan invaded China]] in 1937, isolationism limited Roosevelt's ability to aid China,{{Sfn|Dallek|1995|pp=146–47}} despite atrocities like the [[Nanking Massacre]] and the [[USS Panay incident|USS ''Panay'' incident]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=188–90}} |
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[[File:FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg|thumb|The Roosevelts with [[King George VI]] and [[Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother|Queen Elizabeth]], sailing from Washington, D.C., to [[Mount Vernon]], Virginia, on the [[USS Potomac (AG-25)|USS ''Potomac'']] during the first U.S. visit of a reigning British monarch (June 9, 1939)]] |
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[[File:FDR foreign trips.svg|thumb|Foreign trips of Roosevelt during his presidency<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/roosevelt-franklin-d|title=Travels of President Franklin D. Roosevelt|work=Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=December 2, 2015}}</ref>]] |
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[[Anschluss|Germany annexed Austria]] in 1938, and soon turned its attention to its eastern neighbors.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=423–24}} Roosevelt made it clear that, in the event of German aggression against [[Czechoslovakia]], the U.S. would remain neutral.{{Sfn|Dallek|1995|pp=166–73}} After completion of the [[Munich Agreement]] and the execution of [[Kristallnacht]], American public opinion turned against Germany, and Roosevelt began preparing for a possible war with Germany.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=425–26}} Relying on an interventionist political coalition of Southern Democrats and business-oriented Republicans, Roosevelt oversaw the expansion of U.S. airpower and war production capacity.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=426–29}} |
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When [[World War II]] began in September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland and Britain and France's subsequent declaration of war upon Germany, Roosevelt sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily.{{Sfn|Black|2005|pp=503–06}} Isolationist leaders like [[Charles Lindbergh]] and Senator [[William Borah]] successfully mobilized opposition to Roosevelt's proposed repeal of the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s|Neutrality Act]], but Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the sale of arms on a [[Cash and carry (World War II)|cash-and-carry]] basis.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=436–41}} He also began a regular secret correspondence with Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, [[Winston Churchill]], in September 1939—the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them.{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|p=15}} Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] in May 1940.<ref>{{cite web|title=Roosevelt and Churchill: A Friendship That Saved The World|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/fdrww2.htm|website=National Park Service}}</ref> |
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The [[Battle of France|Fall of France]] in June 1940 shocked the American public, and isolationist sentiment declined.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|1963|pp=399–402}} In July 1940, Roosevelt appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy, respectively. Both parties gave support to his plans for a rapid build-up of the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.{{sfn|Burns|1956|p=420}} In July 1940, a group of Congressmen introduced a bill that would authorize the nation's first peacetime draft, and with the support of the Roosevelt administration, the [[Selective Training and Service Act of 1940]] passed in September. The size of the army increased from 189,000 men at the end of 1939 to 1.4 million men in mid-1941.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=464–66}} In September 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by reaching the [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement]], which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American [[destroyer]]s to Britain.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=438}} |
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====Good Neighbor Policy==== |
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While working under President Wilson, Roosevelt had perpetuated ideas of American racial superiority by believing that the people of Latin American were uncapable of self-government.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Friedman |first=Max Paul |date=January 24, 2018 |title=The Good Neighbor Policy |url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-222 |access-date=May 15, 2023 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.222|isbn=978-0-19-936643-9 }}</ref> However, by 1928 he had switched his point of view, becoming an advocate for cooperation.<ref name=":1" /> In an effort to denounce past U.S. interventionism and subdue any subsequent fears of Latin Americans, Roosevelt announced on March 4, 1933, during his inaugural address, "In the field of World policy, I would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor, the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others, the neighbor who respects his obligations and respects the sanctity of his agreements in and with a World of neighbors."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States: from George Washington 1789 to George Bush 1989 |url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/froos1.asp |access-date=May 15, 2023 |website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref> |
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In order to create a friendly relationship between the United States and Central as well as South American countries, Roosevelt sought to abstain from asserting military force in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Milestones: 1921–1936 – Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/good-neighbor |access-date=May 15, 2023 |website=history.state.gov}}</ref> This position was affirmed by [[Cordell Hull]], Roosevelt's [[Secretary of State]] at a conference of American states in [[Montevideo]] in December 1933. Hull said: "No country has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another."<ref>{{Cite book |last=LeFeber |first=Walter |title=The American Age: U.S. Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to Present |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1994 |isbn=0-393-96474-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=396}}</ref> Roosevelt then confirmed the policy in December of the same year: "The definite policy of the [[United States]] from now on is one opposed to armed intervention."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs |publisher=Belknap Press |editor-last=Nixon |editor-first=Edgar B |volume=1 |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=559–560 |lccn=68025617}}</ref> The fact that the policy was even put into place meant that the U.S. now recognised the maturity of Latin American countries and as a result were now more open to working together, especially when it comes to maintaining the peace.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beck |first=Earl R. |date=1939 |title=The Good Neighbor Policy, 1933–1938 |journal=The Historian |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=110–31 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1939.tb00468.x |jstor=24435879 |issn=0018-2370}}</ref> The policy, in the end, was yet another way for the U.S. to assert its own superiority.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter H. Smith |url=http://archive.org/details/talonsofeaglelat00smit |title=Talons of the eagle |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-508304-0}}</ref> |
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====Election of 1940==== |
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{{Main|1940 United States presidential election}} |
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In the months prior to the July [[1940 Democratic National Convention]], there was much speculation as to whether Roosevelt would run for an unprecedented third term. The president was silent, and even his closest advisors were in the dark.<ref>Bernard F. Donahoe, ''Private Plans and Public Dangers: The Story of FDR's Third Nomination'' (University of Notre Dame Press, 1965).</ref> The two-term tradition, although not yet enshrined in the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]],{{efn|The [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-second Amendment]] ratified in 1951, would bar any individual from winning more than two presidential elections.}} had been established by [[George Washington]] when he refused to run for a third term in the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]]. Roosevelt refused to give a definitive statement as to his willingness to be a candidate again, and he even indicated to some ambitious Democrats, such as James Farley, that he would not run for a third term and that they could seek the Democratic nomination. Farley and Vice President John Garner were not pleased with Roosevelt when he ultimately made the decision to break from Washington's precedent.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> As Germany swept through [[Western Europe]] and menaced Britain in mid-1940, Roosevelt decided that only he had the necessary experience and skills to see the nation safely through the Nazi threat. He was aided by the party's political bosses, who feared that no Democrat except Roosevelt could defeat [[Wendell Willkie]], the popular Republican nominee.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|pp=408–30}} |
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[[File:ElectoralCollege1940.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|1940 electoral vote results]] |
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At the [[1940 Democratic National Convention|July 1940 Democratic Convention]] in Chicago, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and Vice President Garner, who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies.<ref name=moe1/> To replace Garner on the ticket, Roosevelt turned to Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace of Iowa, a former Republican who strongly supported the New Deal and was popular in farm states.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=389–90}} The choice was strenuously opposed by many of the party's conservatives, who felt Wallace was too radical and "eccentric" in his private life to be an effective running mate. But Roosevelt insisted that without Wallace on the ticket he would decline re-nomination, and Wallace won the vice-presidential nomination, defeating Speaker of the House [[William B. Bankhead]] and other candidates.<ref name=moe1>{{cite book|last1=Moe|first1=Richard|title=Roosevelt's Second Act: The Election of 1940 and the Politics of War|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-998191-5|pages=229–46}}</ref> |
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A late August poll taken by [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] found the race to be essentially tied, but Roosevelt's popularity surged in September following the announcement of the [[Destroyers-for-bases deal|Destroyers for Bases Agreement]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=472}} Willkie supported much of the New Deal as well as rearmament and aid to Britain but warned that Roosevelt would drag the country into another European war.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=474–75}} Responding to Willkie's attacks, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out of the war.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=476–77}} Over its last month, the campaign degenerated into a series of outrageous accusations and mud-slinging, if not by the two candidates themselves then by their respective parties.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote, 38 of the 48 states, and almost 85% of the electoral vote.{{Sfn|Burns|1956|p=454}} |
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===Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)=== |
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{{Main|Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms}} |
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{{Further|Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration}} |
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[[World War II]] dominated Roosevelt's attention, with far more time devoted to world affairs than ever before. Domestic politics and relations with Congress were largely shaped by his efforts to achieve total mobilization of the nation's economic, financial, and institutional resources for the war effort. Even relationships with Latin America and Canada were structured by wartime demands. Roosevelt maintained close personal control of all major diplomatic and military decisions, working closely with his generals and admirals, the war and Navy departments, the British, and even the Soviet Union. His key advisors on diplomacy were [[Harry Hopkins]] (who was based in the White House), [[Sumner Welles]] (based in the State Department), and [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]] at Treasury. In military affairs, Roosevelt worked most closely with Secretary [[Henry L. Stimson]] at the War Department, Army Chief of Staff [[George Marshall]], and Admiral [[William D. Leahy]].<ref>Winston Groom, ''The Allies: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin, and the Unlikely Alliance That Won World War II'' (2018)</ref><ref>Joseph E. Persico, ''Roosevelt's Centurions: FDR and the Commanders He Led to Victory in World War II'' (2013).</ref><ref>Eric Larrabee, ''Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War'' (1987)</ref> |
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====Lead-up to the war==== |
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{{listen|title=State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (January 6, 1941)|filename=FDR's 1941 State of the Union (Four Freedoms speech) Edit 1.ogg|description =Franklin Delano Roosevelt's January 6, 1941 [[State of the Union Address]] introducing the theme of the [[Four Freedoms]] (starting at 32:02)}} |
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By late 1940, re-armament was in high gear, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the "[[Arsenal of Democracy]]" for Britain and other countries.{{sfn|Herman|2012|pp=128–29}} With his [[Four Freedoms]] speech in January 1941, Roosevelt laid out the case for an Allied battle for basic rights throughout the world. Assisted by Willkie, Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the [[Lend-Lease]] program, which directed massive military and economic aid to Britain, and China.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=488–90}} In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=95}} As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against Japan, Germany, and Italy, American isolationists such as Charles Lindbergh and the [[America First Committee]] vehemently attacked Roosevelt as an irresponsible warmonger.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Charles|first=Douglas M.|title=Informing FDR: FBI Political Surveillance and the Isolationist-Interventionist Foreign Policy|journal=[[Diplomatic History (journal)|Diplomatic History]]|date=Spring 2000|volume=24|issue=2|pages=211–32|doi=10.1111/0145-2096.00210}}</ref> When Germany [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend-Lease to the Soviets. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] side with a policy of "all aid short of war."{{Sfn|Churchill|1977|p=119}} By July 1941, Roosevelt authorized the creation of the [[Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs]] (OCIAA) to counter perceived propaganda efforts in Latin America by Germany and Italy.<ref>''Media Sound & Culture in Latin America''. Editors: Bronfman, Alejanda & Wood, Andrew Grant. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA, 2012,{{ISBN|978-0-8229-6187-1}} [{{GBurl|id=ehN4sM0Xy_UC|q=Alfredo Antonini Elsa Miranda|p=49}} pp. 41–54]</ref><ref>Anthony, Edwin D. Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs. National Archives and Record Services – General Services Administration, Washington D.C., 1973, pp. 1–8 {{LCCN|73600146}} [https://www.archives.gov/files/research/foreign-policy/related-records/rg-229-inter-american-affairs.pdf Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs at the U.S. National Archive at www.archives.gov]</ref> |
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In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral meeting in which they drafted the [[Atlantic Charter]], conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals. This would be the first of several [[List of World War II conferences|wartime conferences]];{{Sfn|Burns|1970|pp=126–28}} Churchill and Roosevelt would meet ten more times in person.{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|pp=15–16}} Though Churchill pressed for an American declaration of war against Germany, Roosevelt believed that Congress would reject any attempt to bring the United States into the war.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=502}} In September, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer ''Greer'', and Roosevelt declared that the U.S. Navy would assume an escort role for Allied convoys in the Atlantic as far east as Great Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines ([[U-boat]]s) of the [[Kriegsmarine]] if they entered the U.S. Navy zone. According to historian George Donelson Moss, Roosevelt "misled" Americans by reporting the Greer incident as if it would have been an unprovoked German attack on a peaceful American ship.<ref>{{Cite book|title=America in the Twentieth Century|last=Moss|first=George Donelson|publisher=Simon & Schuster Company|year=1993|page=210}}</ref> This "shoot on sight" policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2-to-1.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|pp=141–42}} |
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====Pearl Harbor and declarations of war==== |
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{{See also|Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor}} |
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[[File:Prince of Wales-5.jpg|thumb|right|Roosevelt and [[Winston Churchill]] aboard HMS ''Prince of Wales'' for 1941 Atlantic Charter meeting]] |
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After the German invasion of Poland, the primary concern of both Roosevelt and his top military staff was on the war in Europe, but Japan also presented foreign policy challenges. Relations with Japan had continually deteriorated since its [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invasion of Manchuria]] in 1931, and they had further worsened with Roosevelt's support of China.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=506–08}} With the war in Europe occupying the attention of the major colonial powers, Japanese leaders eyed vulnerable colonies such as the [[Dutch East Indies]], [[French Indochina]], and [[British Malaya]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=509–10}} After Roosevelt announced a $100 million loan (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.1|1940|r=1}} billion in {{Inflation-year|US}}) to China in reaction to Japan's occupation of northern French Indochina, Japan signed the [[Tripartite Pact]] with Germany and Italy. The pact bound each country to defend the others against attack, and Germany, Japan, and Italy became known as the [[Axis powers]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=510–11}} Overcoming those who favored invading the Soviet Union, the Japanese Army high command successfully advocated for the conquest of [[Southeast Asia]] to ensure continued access to raw materials.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=513–14}} In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of French Indochina, Roosevelt cut off the sale of oil to Japan, depriving Japan of more than 95 percent of its oil supply.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|pp=134–46}} He also placed the [[Armed Forces of the Philippines|Philippine military]] under American command and reinstated General [[Douglas MacArthur]] into active duty to command U.S. forces in the Philippines.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=516–17}} |
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The Japanese were incensed by the embargo and Japanese leaders became determined to attack the United States unless it lifted the embargo. The Roosevelt administration was unwilling to reverse the policy, and Secretary of State Hull blocked a potential summit between Roosevelt and Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe]].{{Efn|Hull and others in the administration were unwilling to recognize the Japanese conquest of China and feared that an American accommodation with Japan would leave the Soviet Union vulnerable to a two-front war.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=522–23}}}} After diplomatic efforts to end the embargo failed, the [[Privy Council of Japan]] authorized a strike against the United States.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=518–30}} The Japanese believed that the destruction of the [[United States Asiatic Fleet]] (stationed in the Philippines) and the [[United States Pacific Fleet]] (stationed at [[Pearl Harbor]] in [[Hawaii]]) was vital to the conquest of Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=531–33}} On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor|struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor with a surprise attack]], knocking out the main American [[battleship]] fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians. At the same time, separate Japanese task forces [[Japanese invasion of Thailand|attacked Thailand]], British [[Hong Kong]], the Philippines, and other targets. Roosevelt called for war in his "[[Infamy Speech]]" to Congress, in which he said: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." In a nearly unanimous vote, Congress [[United States declaration of war on Japan|declared war on Japan]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=533–39}} After the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States largely evaporated overnight. On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States, which [[United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)|responded in kind]].{{Efn|The United States would also declare war on [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–46)|Hungary]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]], all of which had joined the Axis bloc.}}{{Sfn|Sainsbury|1994|p=184}} |
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A majority of scholars have rejected the [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maffeo|first=Steven E.|title=U.S. Navy Codebreakers, Linguists, and Intelligence Officers against Japan, 1910–1941: A Biographical Dictionary|url={{GBurl|id=017fCgAAQBAJ|p=311}}|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-5564-7|page=311}}</ref> The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded. Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|pp=523–39}} Roosevelt had expected that the Japanese would attack either the Dutch East Indies or Thailand.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=159}} {{clear}} |
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====War plans==== |
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[[File:Ww2 allied axis 1942 jun.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Territory controlled by the Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in June 1942]] |
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In late December 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met at the [[Arcadia Conference]], which established a joint strategy between the U.S. and Britain. |
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Both agreed on a [[Europe first]] strategy that prioritized the defeat of Germany before Japan. The U.S. and Britain established the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] to coordinate military policy and the [[Combined Munitions Assignments Board]] to coordinate the allocation of supplies.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=545–47}} An agreement was also reached to establish a centralized command in the Pacific theater called [[ABDA]], named for the American, British, [[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Dutch]], and [[Australia]]n forces in the theater.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|pp=180–85}} On January 1, 1942, the United States, Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and twenty-two other countries (the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Powers]]) issued the [[Declaration by United Nations]], in which each nation pledged to defeat the Axis powers.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=547}} |
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In 1942, Roosevelt formed a new body, the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], which made the final decisions on American military strategy. Admiral [[Ernest J. King]] as [[Chief of Naval Operations]] commanded the Navy and Marines, while General [[George C. Marshall]] led the Army and was in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General [[Hap Arnold]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chambers|first=John Whiteclay|title=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00cham/page/351|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|isbn=978-0-19-507198-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00cham/page/351 351]}}</ref> The Joint Chiefs were chaired by Admiral [[William D. Leahy]], the most senior officer in the military.{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=546}} Roosevelt avoided micromanaging the war and let his top military officers make most decisions.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=598–99}} Roosevelt's civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians—not even the secretaries of War or Navy—had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high-level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins, whose influence was bolstered by his control of the Lend Lease funds.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fullilove|first1=Michael|title=Rendezvous with Destiny: How Franklin D. Roosevelt and Five Extraordinary Men Took America into the War and into the World|date=2013|publisher=Penguin Press|isbn=978-1-59420-435-7|pages=147–49}}</ref> |
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====Nuclear program==== |
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{{see also|History of nuclear weapons|Nuclear weapons of the United States}} |
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In August 1939, [[Leo Szilard]] and [[Albert Einstein]] sent the [[Einstein–Szilárd letter]] to Roosevelt, warning of the possibility of a German [[German nuclear weapon project|project]] to develop [[nuclear weapon]]s. Szilard realized that the recently discovered process of [[nuclear fission]] could be used to create a [[nuclear chain reaction]] that could be used as a [[weapon of mass destruction]].{{Sfn|Brands|2009|pp=678–80}} Roosevelt feared the consequences of allowing Germany to have sole possession of the technology and authorized preliminary research into nuclear weapons.{{Efn|The Germans stopped research on nuclear weapons in 1942, choosing to focus on other projects. Japan gave up its own program in 1943.{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=580}}}} After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Roosevelt administration secured the funds needed to continue research and selected General [[Leslie Groves]] to oversee the [[Manhattan Project]], which was charged with developing the first nuclear weapons. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to jointly pursue the project, and Roosevelt helped ensure that American scientists cooperated with their British counterparts.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=578–81}} |
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====Wartime conferences==== |
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{{see also|Diplomatic history of World War II}} |
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Roosevelt coined the term "[[Four Policemen]]" to refer to the "Big Four" Allied powers of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China. The "[[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Big Three]]" of Roosevelt, [[Winston Churchill]], and Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]], together with Chinese Generalissimo [[Chiang Kai-shek]], cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern front]]; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The United States also continued to send aid via the Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union and other countries. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as by contact through diplomatic and military channels.{{sfn|Doenecke|Stoler|2005|pp=109–10}} Beginning in May 1942, the Soviets urged an Anglo-American invasion of German-occupied France in order to divert troops from the Eastern front.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=557–59}} Concerned that their forces were not yet ready for an invasion of France, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to delay such an invasion until at least 1943 and instead focus on a landing in North Africa, known as [[Operation Torch]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=560–61}} |
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In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the [[Tehran Conference]], where Roosevelt met Stalin for the first time.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=587–88}} At the conference, Britain and the United States committed to opening a second front against Germany in 1944, while Stalin committed to entering the war against Japan at an unspecified date. Subsequent conferences at [[Bretton Woods Conference|Bretton Woods]] and [[Dumbarton Oaks Conference|Dumbarton Oaks]] established the framework for the post-war [[International monetary systems|international monetary system]] and the [[United Nations]], an intergovernmental organization similar to the failed League of Nations.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=214–16}} Taking up the [[Wilsonian]] mantle, Roosevelt pushed as his highest postwar priority the establishment of the [[United Nations]]. Roosevelt expected it would be controlled by Washington, Moscow, London and Beijing, and would resolve all major world problems.<ref>Townsend Hoopes, and Douglas Brinkley, ''FDR and the Creation of the UN'' (Yale UP, 1997) pp. ix, 175.</ref> |
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[[File:Franklin D. Roosevelt and King Farouk of Egypt at Great Bitter Lake in Egypt - NARA - 196056.jpg|alt=208-PU-173-F-22 (29314272156)|thumb|Roosevelt meets [[Farouk of Egypt|King Farouk]] of Egypt in conference on board [[USS Quincy (CA-71)|USS ''Quincy'' (CA-71)]] in [[Great Bitter Lake]], after the Yalta Conference, February 1945]] |
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Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945 [[Yalta Conference]] in Crimea. With the end of the war in Europe approaching, Roosevelt's primary focus was on convincing Stalin to enter the war against Japan; the Joint Chiefs had estimated that an [[Operation Downfall|American invasion of Japan]] would cause as many as one million American casualties. In return for the Soviet Union's entrance into the war against Japan, the Soviet Union was promised control of Asian territories such as [[Sakhalin Island]]. The three leaders agreed to hold a conference in 1945 to establish the United Nations, and they also agreed on the structure of the [[United Nations Security Council]], which would be charged with ensuring [[International security|international peace and security]]. Roosevelt did not push for the immediate evacuation of Soviet soldiers from Poland, but he won the issuance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe, which promised free elections in countries that had been occupied by Germany. Germany itself would not be dismembered but would be jointly occupied by the United States, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=623–24}} Against Soviet pressure, Roosevelt and Churchill refused to consent to impose huge reparations and deindustrialization on Germany after the war.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=233–34}} Roosevelt's role in the [[Yalta Conference]] has been controversial; critics charge that he naively trusted the Soviet Union to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, while supporters argue that there was little more that Roosevelt could have done for the Eastern European countries given the Soviet occupation and the need for cooperation with the Soviet Union during and after the war.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=584–87}}<ref name="ebumiller1">{{cite news|last1=Bumiller|first1=Elizabeth|title=60 Years Later, Debating Yalta All Over Again|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/16/politics/60-years-later-debating-yalta-all-over-again.html|access-date=October 14, 2017|newspaper=The New York Times|date=May 16, 2005}}</ref> |
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====Course of the war==== |
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{{see also|Military history of the United States during World War II}} |
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The Allies invaded [[French North Africa]] in November 1942, securing the surrender of [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] forces within days of landing.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=563–64}} At the January 1943 [[Casablanca Conference]], the Allies agreed to defeat Axis forces in North Africa and then launch an invasion of Sicily, with an attack on France to take place in 1944. At the conference, Roosevelt also announced that he would only accept the [[unconditional surrender]] of Germany, Japan, and Italy.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=565–67}} In February 1943, the Soviet Union won a major victory at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], and in May 1943, the Allies secured the surrender of over 250,000 German and Italian soldiers in North Africa, ending the [[North African Campaign]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=573–74}} The Allies launched an [[Allied invasion of Sicily|invasion of Sicily]] in July 1943, capturing the island by the end of the following month.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=575–76}} In September 1943, the Allies secured an [[Armistice of Cassibile|armistice]] from Italian Prime Minister [[Pietro Badoglio]], but Germany quickly restored Mussolini to power.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=575–76}} The [[Allied invasion of Italy|Allied invasion of mainland Italy]] commenced in September 1943, but the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]] continued until 1945 as German and Italian troops resisted the Allied advance.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=581–82}} |
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[[File:Ww2 allied axis 1944 dec.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in December 1944]] |
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To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt chose General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], who had successfully commanded a multinational coalition in North Africa and Sicily.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=596–97}} Eisenhower chose to launch [[Operation Overlord]] on June 6, 1944. Supported by 12,000 aircraft and the largest naval force ever assembled, the Allies successfully established a beachhead in [[Normandy]] and then advanced further into France.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=598–99}} Though reluctant to back an unelected government, Roosevelt recognized [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] as the de facto government of France in July 1944. After most of France had been liberated from German occupation, Roosevelt granted formal recognition to de Gaulle's government in October 1944.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=613–17}} Over the following months, the Allies liberated more territory from Nazi occupation and [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|began the invasion of Germany]]. By April 1945, Nazi resistance was crumbling in the face of advances by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=630–31}} |
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In the opening weeks of the war, Japan conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia. The Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Midway]]. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly strategy called [[Leapfrogging (strategy)|island hopping]] or [[leapfrogging]] through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=228}} Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan, but he always insisted on Germany first. The strength of the Japanese navy was decimated in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], and by April 1945 the Allies had re-captured much of their lost territory in the Pacific.{{Sfn|Brands|2009|p=785}} |
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====Home front==== |
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{{Main|United States home front during World War II}} |
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The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million.{{Efn|WPA workers were counted as unemployed by this set of statistics.<ref>{{Citation|place=US|publisher=Bureau of the Census|title=Statistical Abstract|year=1946|page=173}}</ref>}} There was a growing labor shortage, accelerating the second wave of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] of African Americans, farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers. African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry. To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5% on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100% on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded.{{Sfn|Schweikart|Allen|2004|p=602}} The [[Revenue Act of 1942]] instituted top tax rates as high as 94% (after accounting for the [[excess profits tax]]), greatly increased the tax base, and instituted the first federal [[withholding tax]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=221–22}} In 1944, Roosevelt requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all "unreasonable" profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures. Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto to pass a [[Individual Income Tax Act of 1944|smaller revenue bill]] raising $2 billion.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=436}} |
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In 1942, with the United States now in the conflict, war production increased dramatically but fell short of the goals established by the president, due in part to manpower shortages.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=333}} The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially among union workers in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=343}}{{sfn|Herman|2012|pp=139–44, 151, 246}} Nonetheless, between 1941 and 1945, the United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=571–72}} The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the [[Board of Economic Warfare]], and [[Jesse H. Jones]], in charge of the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]]; both agencies assumed responsibility for the acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding. Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|pp=339–42}} In 1943, Roosevelt established the [[Office of War Mobilization]] to oversee the home front; the agency was led by [[James F. Byrnes]], who came to be known as the "assistant president" due to his influence.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=575–76}} |
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[[File:Second Bill of Rights Speech.ogv|thumb|Roosevelt announced the plan for a [[Second Bill of Rights|bill of social and economic rights]] in the [[State of the Union address]] broadcast on January 11, 1944 (excerpt).]] |
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Roosevelt's 1944 [[State of the Union Address]] advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a [[Second Bill of Rights]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=223–25}} He stated that all Americans should have the right to "adequate medical care", "a good education", "a decent home", and a "useful and remunerative job".<ref name="zeitzsbr"/> In the most ambitious domestic proposal of his third term, Roosevelt proposed the [[G.I. Bill]], which would create a massive benefits program for returning soldiers. Benefits included [[higher education|post-secondary education]], medical care, unemployment insurance, job counseling, and low-cost loans for homes and businesses. The G.I. Bill passed unanimously in both houses of Congress and was signed into law in June 1944. Of the fifteen million Americans who served in World War II, more than half benefitted from the educational opportunities provided for in the G.I. Bill.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=584–85}} |
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====Declining health==== |
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Roosevelt, a [[Chain smoking|chain-smoker]] throughout his entire adult life,<ref name="nih">{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/magazine/issues/summer07/articles/summer07pg25.html|title=Medical Research Pays Off for All Americans|date=Summer 2007|access-date=July 25, 2014|work=NIH Medline Plus|publisher=National Institutes of Health}}</ref><ref name="smoker">{{cite news|first=Max|last=Hastings|date=January 19, 2009|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/presidents/franklin-d-roosevelt-the-man-who-conquered-fear-1417417.html|title=Franklin D Roosevelt: The man who conquered fear|access-date=July 25, 2014|work=The Independent}}</ref> had been in declining physical health since at least 1940. In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing at [[Bethesda Naval Hospital|Bethesda Hospital]] and was found to have [[high blood pressure]], [[atherosclerosis]], [[coronary artery disease]] causing [[angina pectoris]], and [[congestive heart failure]].{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=448}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Lerner|first=Barron H.|url=http://hnn.us/articles/40225.html|title=How Much Confidence Should We Have in the Doctor's Account of FDR's Death?|work=History News Network|publisher=George Washington University|date=November 23, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bruenn|first=Howard G.|title=Clinical notes on the illness & death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|date=April 1970|volume=72|issue=4|pages=579–91|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-72-4-579|pmid=4908628}}</ref> |
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Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest. His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest each day. During the 1944 re-election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that "The President's health is perfectly OK. There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all."{{Sfn|Gunther|1950|pp=372–74}} Roosevelt realized that his declining health could eventually make it impossible for him to continue as president, and in 1945 he told a confidant that he might resign from the presidency following the end of the war.{{sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=618–19}} |
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====Election of 1944==== |
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{{Main|1944 United States presidential election|1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection}} |
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[[File:ElectoralCollege1944.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|1944 electoral vote results]] |
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While some Democrats had opposed Roosevelt's nomination in 1940, the president faced little difficulty in securing his re-nomination at the [[1944 Democratic National Convention]]. Roosevelt made it clear before the convention that he was seeking another term, and on the lone presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt won the vast majority of delegates, although a minority of Southern Democrats voted for [[Harry F. Byrd]]. Party leaders prevailed upon Roosevelt to drop Vice President Wallace from the ticket, believing him to be an electoral liability and a poor potential successor in case of Roosevelt's death. Roosevelt preferred Byrnes as Wallace's replacement but was convinced to support Senator [[Harry S. Truman]] of Missouri, who had earned renown for his investigation of [[Truman Committee|war production inefficiency]] and was acceptable to the various factions of the party. On the second vice presidential ballot of the convention, Truman defeated Wallace to win the nomination.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=617–19}} |
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The Republicans nominated [[Thomas E. Dewey]], the governor of New York, who had a reputation as a liberal in his party. They accused the Roosevelt administration of domestic corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency, but Dewey's most effective gambit was to raise discreetly the age issue. He assailed the President as a "tired old man" with "tired old men" in his cabinet, pointedly suggesting that the President's lack of vigor had produced a less than vigorous economic recovery.<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> Roosevelt, as most observers could see from his weight loss and haggard appearance, was a tired man in 1944. But upon entering the campaign in earnest in late September 1944, Roosevelt displayed enough passion and fight to allay most concerns and to deflect Republican attacks. With the war still raging, he urged voters not to "change horses in mid-stream."<ref name = "FDR Campaigns"/> Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, fully supported Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Truman won the [[1944 United States presidential election|1944 election]] by a comfortable margin, defeating Dewey and his running mate [[John W. Bricker]] with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes.{{sfn|Jordan|2011|p=321}} The president campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation's future participation in the international community.{{Sfn|Burns|1970|pp=533, 562}} |
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====Final months and death<span class="anchor" id="Death"></span><!-- linked from redirect "Death of Franklin D. Roosevelt" -->==== |
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When Roosevelt returned to the United States from the [[Yalta Conference]], many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity.{{Sfn|Dallek|1995|p=520}} During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting behind his back a separate peace with Hitler, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates."{{Sfn|Burns|1970|p=587}} On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the [[Little White House]] at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|founding conference]] of the [[United Nations]].{{citation needed|date=July 2023}} |
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In the afternoon of April 12, 1945, in [[Warm Springs, Georgia]], while sitting for [[Unfinished portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt|a portrait]] by [[Elizabeth Shoumatoff]], Roosevelt said: "I have a terrific headache."<ref name=dayb>{{cite web|title=Franklin D. Roosevelt Day by Day – April|url=http://fdrlibrary.wordpress.com/tag/elizabeth-shoumatoff/|work=In Roosevelt History|publisher=Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum Collections and Programs|access-date=May 14, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/president-franklin-roosevelt-dies-63-article-1.2597712|title=President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at 63 in 1945|date=April 13, 1945|work=[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]|location=New York|access-date=December 29, 2017 }}</ref> He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, [[Howard Bruenn]], diagnosed the medical emergency as a massive [[intracerebral hemorrhage]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Presidential Stroke: United States Presidents and Cerebrovascular Disease|first1=Jeffrey M.|last1=Jones|first2=Joni L.|last2=Jones|journal=CNS Spectrums|volume=11|issue=9|date=September 2006|pages=674–78|doi=10.1017/S1092852900014760|pmid=16946692|s2cid=44889213 }}</ref> At 3:35 p.m. that day, Roosevelt died at the age of 63.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2016/04/this-day-in-politics-april-12-1945-221722|last=Andrew Glass|work=[[Politico]]|date=April 12, 2016 |access-date=May 21, 2020}}</ref> |
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The following morning, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train for the trip back to Washington.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roosevelt Funeral Train {{!}} C-SPAN.org |url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?314427-1/roosevelt-funeral-train |access-date=February 7, 2023 |website=www.c-span.org}}</ref> Along the route, thousands flocked to the tracks to pay their respects. After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported by train from Washington, D.C., to his place of birth at Hyde Park. On April 15 he was buried, per his wish, in the rose garden of his [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|Springwood estate]].{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=620}} |
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Roosevelt's declining physical health had been kept secret from the public. His death was met with shock and grief across the world.<ref>{{cite video|year=1945|type=video|title=Allies Overrun Germany|url=https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39165|publisher=[[Universal Newsreel]]|access-date=February 21, 2012}}</ref> Germany surrendered during the 30-day mourning period, but Harry Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt as president) ordered flags to remain at half-staff; he also dedicated [[Victory in Europe Day]] and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.<ref>{{cite book| last = McCullough| first = David| author-link = David McCullough| year = 1992| title = Truman| publisher = Simon & Schuster| isbn = 978-0-671-86920-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/truman00mccu_0/page/345 345, 381]| title-link = Truman (book) }}</ref> World War II finally ended with the signed [[surrender of Japan]] in September.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=243–52}} |
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Coincidentally, on April 12, 1945, a [[Tornado outbreak of April 12, 1945|devastating tornado outbreak]] occurred in the United States, which killed 128 people and injured over a thousand others. The tornado outbreak included the fourth deadliest tornado in Oklahoma history, which leveled a third of the town of [[Antlers, Oklahoma|Antlers]]. Roosevelt's death overshadowed what would have "commanded national media attention" for a while.<ref name="Grazulis">{{cite book|last1=Grazulis|first1=Thomas P.|author-link=Thomas P. Grazulis|title=Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events|date=July 1993|publisher=The Tornado Project of Environmental Films|location=[[St. Johnsbury, Vermont]]|isbn=1-879362-03-1|page=919}}</ref><ref name="Top 10 Deadliest NWS">{{cite web |title=Top Ten Deadliest Oklahoma Tornadoes (1882-Present) |url=https://www.weather.gov/oun/tornadodata-ok-deadliest |publisher=National Weather Service in Norman, Oklahoma |access-date=August 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814191757/https://www.weather.gov/oun/tornadodata-ok-deadliest |archive-date=August 14, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tornado expert [[Thomas P. Grazulis]] said that, "even nearby newspapers had more information on the death of the President than on the tornado".<ref name="Grazulis"/> |
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==Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Jews== |
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{{Further|Franklin D. Roosevelt and civil rights}} |
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[[File:Froosevelt.jpeg|thumb|left|Official portrait of President Roosevelt by [[Frank O. Salisbury]], {{circa|1947}}]] |
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Roosevelt was viewed as a hero by many African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and he was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp509.htm |title=Jewish Vote in U.S. Elections |publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |access-date=February 7, 2010}}</ref> From his first term until 1939, the [[Mexican Repatriation]] started by President [[Herbert Hoover]] continued under Roosevelt, which scholars today contend was a form of [[ethnic cleansing]] towards [[Mexican Americans]]. Roosevelt ended federal involvement in the deportations. After 1934, the number of deportations fell by approximately 50 percent.<ref name="Balderrama">{{Cite book |last1=Balderrama |first1=Francisco E. |url={{GBurl|id=1A6iBy_0qacC}} |title=Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Raymond |publisher=UNM Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8263-3973-7 |page=82}}</ref> However, Roosevelt did not attempt to suppress the deportations on a local or state level.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGreevy |first=Patrick |date=October 2, 2015 |title=California law seeks history of Mexican deportations in textbooks |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-ln-california-law-seeks-history-of-mexican-deportations-in-textbooks-20151001-story.html |access-date=August 12, 2023 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bernard |first=Diane |date=October 28, 2021 |title=The time a president deported 1 million Mexican Americans for supposedly stealing U.S. jobs |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/08/13/the-time-a-president-deported-1-million-mexican-americans-for-stealing-u-s-jobs/ |access-date=August 12, 2023 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Mexican Americans were the only group explicitly excluded from New Deal benefits. The deprival of [[due process]] for Mexican Americans is cited as a precedent for Roosevelt's [[internment of Japanese Americans]] in [[concentration camp]]s during World War II.<ref name="EthnicCleansingJohnson">{{cite news|url=http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1147&context=plr|title=The Forgotten Repatriation of Persons of Mexican Ancestry and Lessons for the War on Terror|last=Johnson|first=Kevin|date=Fall 2005|publisher=Pace Law Review|issue=1|location=Davis, California|volume=26}}</ref> Roosevelt won strong support from Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans, but not Japanese Americans, as he presided over their internment during the war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Odo |first=Franklin |title=The Columbia Documentary History of the Asian American Experience |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiadocument00fran/page/5 |year=2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11030-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiadocument00fran/page/5 5] }}</ref> African Americans and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] fared well in two New Deal relief programs, the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] and the [[Indian Reorganization Act]], respectively. Sitkoff reports that the WPA "provided an economic floor for the whole black community in the 1930s, rivaling both agriculture and domestic service as the chief source" of income.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sitkoff |first=Harvard |title=A new deal for Blacks: the emergence of civil rights as a national issue |url={{GBurl|id=u5EnAQAAMAAJ|p=71}} |date=1978 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-502418-0 |page=71}}</ref> |
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===Lynching and Civil Rights=== |
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In contrast to Presidents Harding and Coolidge, Roosevelt stopped short of joining [[NAACP]] leaders in pushing for federal anti-[[lynching]] legislation. He asserted that such legislation was unlikely to pass and that his support for it would alienate Southern congressmen though by 1940 even his conservative Texas vice-president, Garner, supported federal action against lynching.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Magness |first=Phillip W. |title=How FDR Killed Federal Anti-Lynching Legislation|url= https://www.aier.org/article/how-fdr-killed-federal-anti-lynching-legislation/|journal=American Institute for Economic Research |date=July 31, 2000}}</ref> |
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In his twelve years as president, Roosevelt did not appoint or nominate a single African American as secretary or assistant secretary to his cabinet. About one-hundred African Americans met with each other informally, however, to provide the administration with advice on issues related to African Americans. Although sometimes described as a "[[Black Cabinet]]," Roosevelt never officially acknowledged it as such nor did he make "appointments" to it {{sfn|McJimsey|2000|pp=162–63}}. |
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First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt vocally supported efforts designed to aid the African American community, including the Fair Labor Standards Act, which helped boost wages for nonwhite workers in the South.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=307–08}} In 1941, Roosevelt established the [[Fair Employment Practices Committee]] (FEPC) to implement [[Executive Order 8802]], which prohibited racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors. The FEPC was the first national program directed against [[employment discrimination]], and it played a major role in opening up new employment opportunities to non-white workers. During World War II, the proportion of African American men employed in manufacturing positions rose significantly.<ref name="collins">{{cite journal|first=William J.|last=Collins|jstor=2677909|title=Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets|journal=[[The American Economic Review]]|volume=91|issue=1|pages=272–86|date=March 2001|doi=10.1257/aer.91.1.272}}</ref> In response to Roosevelt's policies, African Americans increasingly defected from the Republican Party during the 1930s and 1940s, becoming an important Democratic [[voting bloc]] in several Northern states.{{sfn|McJimsey|2000|pp=162–63}} |
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===Japanese-Americans=== |
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The attack on Pearl Harbor raised concerns in the public regarding the possibility of sabotage by [[Japanese Americans]]. This suspicion was fed by long-standing racism against Japanese immigrants, as well as the findings of the [[Roberts Commissions|Roberts Commission]], which concluded that the attack on Pearl Harbor had been assisted by Japanese spies. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed [[Executive Order 9066]], which relocated 110,000 Japanese-American citizens and immigrants, most of whom lived on the Pacific Coast.<ref name = "FDR Domestic Affairs"/> They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and [[Internment of Japanese Americans|interned in hastily built camps]] in interior, harsh locations. Internment was consistent with the racial views expressed in Roosevelt's articles during the 1920s for the [[Macon Telegraph]] condemning "the mingling of Asiatic blood with European or American blood" and praising California's laws to bar Japanese immigrants from owning land as well his confidential suggestion in 1936 that Japanese Americans in Hawaii greeting Japanese ships or having any connection with their officers be put "on a special list of those who would be the first to be placed in a concentration camp" in the event of war.<ref>Beito, p. 166-167.</ref> |
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Roosevelt delegated the decision for internment to Secretary of War Stimson, who in turn relied on the judgment of Assistant Secretary of War [[John J. McCloy]]. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of ''[[Korematsu v. United States]]''.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=549–53}} A much smaller number of [[Internment of German Americans|German]] and [[Internment of Italian Americans|Italian]] citizens were arrested or placed into internment camps. Unlike the concentration camps for Japanese Americans, however, they were not sent to them on the sole basis of racial ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|title=World War II Enemy Alien Control Program Overview|publisher=National Archives|date=September 23, 2016|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/immigration/enemy-aliens-overview.html}}</ref><ref>Beito, p. 180-183.</ref> |
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===Jews=== |
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There is controversy among historians about Roosevelt's attitude to Jews and the Holocaust. [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] says Roosevelt "did what he could do" to help Jews; [[David Wyman]] says Roosevelt's record on Jewish refugees and their rescue is "very poor" and one of the worst failures of his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|last=Everhart|first=Karen|title=FDR defenders enlist TV critics to refute Holocaust film|url=https://current.org/1994/05/fdr-defenders-enlist-tv-critics-refute-holocaust-film/|date=May 9, 1994|website=[[Current (newspaper)|Current]]|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> In 1923, as a member of the Harvard board of directors, Roosevelt decided there were too many Jewish students at [[Harvard University]] and helped institute a quota to limit the number of Jews admitted to Harvard.<ref name="latimes.com">{{cite news|last=Medoff|first=Rafael|author-link=Rafael Medoff|title=What FDR said about Jews in private|url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/la-xpm-2013-apr-07-la-oe-medoff-roosevelt-holocaust-20130407-story.html|date=April 7, 2013|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-access=subscription|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> After Kristallnacht in 1938, Roosevelt had his ambassador to Germany recalled back to Washington. He did not loosen immigration quotas but did allow German Jews already in the U.S. on visas to stay indefinitely.{{sfn|Breitman|Lichtman|2013|pp=114–15}} According to [[Rafael Medoff]], the U.S. president could have saved 190,000 Jewish lives by telling his State Department to fill immigration quotas to the legal limit, but his administration discouraged and disqualified Jewish refugees based on its prohibitive requirements that left less than 25% of the quotas filled.<ref name="latimes.com"/> |
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Hitler chose to implement the "[[Final Solution]]"—the extermination of the European Jewish population—by January 1942, and American officials learned of the scale of the Nazi extermination campaign in the following months. Against the objections of the State Department, Roosevelt convinced the other Allied leaders to jointly issue the [[Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations]], which condemned the ongoing [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] and warned to try its perpetrators as [[War crime|war criminals]]. In 1943, Roosevelt told U.S. government officials that there should be limits on Jews in various professions to "eliminate the specific and understandable complaints which the Germans bore towards the Jews in Germany."<ref name="latimes.com"/> The same year, Roosevelt was personally briefed by [[Polish Home Army]] intelligence agent [[Jan Karski]] who was an eyewitness of the Holocaust; pleading for action, Karski told him that 1.8 million Jews had already been exterminated.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Jan Karski|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jan-karski|encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia|publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jan Karski, Humanity's hero: The Story of Poland's Wartime Emissary|url=http://www.karski.muzhp.pl/karski_en/misja_raporty_karskiego_rozmowa.html|website=[[Museum of Polish History]]|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> Karski recalled that in response, Roosevelt "did not ask one question about the Jews."<ref>{{cite web|last=Glass|first=Andrew|title=Holocaust eyewitness briefs FDR, July 28, 1943|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/07/28/holocaust-eyewitness-briefs-fdr-july-28-1943-735759|date=July 28, 2018|website=[[Politico]]|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> In January 1944, Roosevelt established the [[War Refugee Board]] to aid Jews and other victims of Axis atrocities. Aside from these actions, Roosevelt believed that the best way to help the persecuted populations of Europe was to end the war as quickly as possible. Top military leaders and War Department leaders rejected any campaign to bomb the [[extermination camps]] or the rail lines leading to the camps, fearing it would be a diversion from the war effort. According to biographer [[Jean Edward Smith]], there is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=607–13}} |
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==Legacy== |
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===Historical reputation=== |
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Roosevelt is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the [[history of the United States]],<ref name="100mostinfluential">{{cite magazine|title=The 100 Most Influential Figures in American History|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/12/the-100-most-influential-figures-in-american-history/305384/|access-date=October 13, 2017|last1=Appleby|first1=Joyce|last2=Brands|first2=H.W.|last3=Dallek|first3=Robert|last4=Fitzpatrick|first4=Ellen|last5=Goodwin|first5=Doris Kearns|last6=Gordon|first6=John Steele|last7=Kennedy|first7=David M.|last8=McDougall|first8=Walter|last9=Noll|first9=Mark|last10=Wood|first10=Gordon S.|magazine=The Atlantic|date=December 2006}}</ref> as well as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.<ref name="kwalsh1">{{cite magazine|last1=Walsh|first1=Kenneth T.|title=FDR: The President Who Made America Into a Superpower|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/ken-walshs-washington/2015/04/10/fdr-franklin-delano-roosevelt-made-america-into-a-superpower|access-date=October 13, 2017|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|date=April 10, 2015}}</ref> Historians and political scientists consistently rank Roosevelt, [[George Washington]], and [[Abraham Lincoln]] as the three [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|greatest presidents]], although the order varies.<ref name=greatestpresidents>{{cite web|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|department=C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leadership|publisher=[[C-SPAN]]}}</ref><ref name=greatestpresidents2>{{cite news|title=Presidential Leadership – The Rankings|url=http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110007243|date=September 12, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051102135447/http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110007243|archive-date=November 2, 2005|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=May 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name=greatestpresidents3>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/02/16/new-ranking-of-u-s-presidents-puts-lincoln-1-obama-18-kennedy-judged-most-over-rated/|title=New ranking of U.S. presidents puts Lincoln at No. 1, Obama at 18; Kennedy judged most overrated|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|last1=Rottinghaus|first1=Brandon|last2=Vaughn|first2=Justin|date=February 16, 2015|access-date=May 4, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| first=Arthur M. Jr. |last=Schlesinger|title=Ranking the Presidents: From Washington to Clinton|journal=Political Science Quarterly|date=Summer 1997|volume=112|issue=2|pages=179–90|jstor=2657937|doi=10.2307/2657937}}</ref> Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", biographer [[Jean Edward Smith]] said in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees."{{Sfn|Smith|2007|p=ix}} |
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His commitment to the working class and unemployed in need of relief in the nation's longest recession made him a favorite of the blue collar workers, labor unions, and ethnic minorities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Greenstein|first=F I|title=The Presidential Difference Leadership Style from FDR to Barack Obama|edition=3rd |publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-691-14383-5|location=United Kingdom|page=14|language=English}}</ref> The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberalism]] for coming generations.<ref>{{Citation|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.|last=Schlesinger|first=Arthur M. Jr|contribution-url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/schleslib.html|contribution=Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans|title=The Politics of Hope|publisher=Riverside Press|year=2007|orig-date = 1963|isbn=978-0-691-13475-8}}</ref> Roosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.{{sfn|Black|2005|pp=1126–27}} He also created a new understanding of the presidency, permanently increasing the power of the president at the expense of Congress.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=174–75}} |
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His Second Bill of Rights became, according to historian Joshua Zeitz, "the basis of the Democratic Party's aspirations for the better part of four decades."<ref name="zeitzsbr">{{cite news|last1=Zeitz|first1=Joshua|title=Democrats Aren't Moving Left. They're Returning to Their Roots.|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/11/04/elections-2018-democrats-history-liberal-progressive-socialist-222187|access-date=November 17, 2018|work=Politico|date=November 4, 2018}}</ref> After his death, his widow, Eleanor, continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Some junior New Dealers played leading roles in the presidencies of Truman, John Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson. Kennedy came from a Roosevelt-hating family. Historian [[William Leuchtenburg]] says that before 1960, "Kennedy showed a conspicuous lack of inclination to identify himself as a New Deal liberal." He adds, as president, "Kennedy never wholly embraced the Roosevelt tradition and at times he deliberately severed himself from it."<ref>{{Citation|first=William E.|last=Leuchtenburg|title=In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8014-8737-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/inshadowoffdrfro00leuc_0|pages=128, 178}}</ref> By contrast, young Lyndon Johnson had been an enthusiastic New Dealer and a favorite of Roosevelt. Johnson modelled his presidency on Roosevelt's and relied heavily on New Deal lawyer [[Abe Fortas]], as well as [[James H. Rowe]], [[Anna M. Rosenberg]], [[Thomas Gardiner Corcoran]], and [[Benjamin V. Cohen]].<ref>Leuchtenburg, pp. 208, 218, 226.</ref><ref>John Massaro, "LBJ and the Fortas Nomination for Chief Justice." ''Political Science Quarterly'' 97.4 (1982): 603–621.</ref> |
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During his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent afterwards, there has been much [[Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt|criticism of Roosevelt]], some of it intense. Critics have questioned not only [[Critics of the New Deal|his policies, positions]], and the consolidation of power that occurred due to his responses to the crises of the Depression and World War II but also his breaking with tradition by running for a third term as president.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|pp=624–25}} Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized Roosevelt's policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe,{{Sfn|Wyman|1984}} incarcerating the Japanese on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]],{{Sfn|Robinson|2001}} and opposing anti-lynching legislation.{{Sfn|Dallek|2017|p=626}} |
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Roosevelt was criticized by conservatives for his economic policies, especially the shift in tone from [[individualism]] to [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]] with the expansion of the [[welfare state]] and regulation of the economy. Those criticisms continued decades after his death. One factor in the revisiting of these issues in later decades was the election of [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1980, who opposed the New Deal.<ref>Bruce Frohnen, Jeremy Beer and Jeffery O. Nelson, eds. ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia'' (2006). pp. 619–621, 645–646.</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/12/23/us/no-headline-143644.html "Reagan says many New Dealers wanted fascism"]. ''[[The New York Times]]''. December 22, 1981.</ref> |
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===Memorials=== |
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{{Main|List of memorials to Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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Roosevelt's [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|home in Hyde Park]] is now a [[National Historic Sites (United States)|National Historic Site]] and home to his [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum|Presidential library]]. Washington, D.C., hosts two memorials to the former president. The largest, the {{convert|7+1/2|acre|ha|0|abbr=off|adj=on}} [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial|Roosevelt Memorial]], is located next to the [[Jefferson Memorial]] on the [[Tidal Basin]].<ref name="npsmem1">{{cite web|title=Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/presidents/fdr_memorial.html|website=National Park Service|access-date=January 19, 2018}}</ref> A [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial#Original Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial|more modest memorial]], a block of marble in front of the National Archives building suggested by Roosevelt himself, was erected in 1965.<ref>{{cite web|author1=jessiekratz|title=The other FDR Memorial|url=https://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2015/04/10/the-other-fdr-memorial/|website=Pieces of History|publisher=National Archives|access-date=June 19, 2017|date=April 10, 2015}}</ref> Roosevelt's leadership in the [[March of Dimes]] is one reason he is commemorated on the American [[Dime (United States coin)|dime]].<ref name="dime1">{{cite news|title=Conservatives want Reagan to replace FDR on U.S. dimes|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2003-12-05-reagan-dime_x.htm|access-date=January 22, 2018|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=USA Today|date=December 5, 2003}}</ref> Roosevelt has also appeared on several [[U.S. Presidents on U.S. postage stamps#Franklin D. Roosevelt|U.S. Postage stamps]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Franklin Delano Roosevelt Issues|url=https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/about-us-stamps-modern-period-1940-present-commemorative-issues-1940-1949-1944-1945-5|website=Smithsonian National Postal Museum|access-date=May 11, 2021}}</ref> On April 29, 1945, seventeen days after Roosevelt's death, the carrier [[USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)|USS ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'']] was launched and served from 1945 to 1977.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FDR Library – USS Roosevelt|url=http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ussroos4.html|access-date=September 25, 2021|website=docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu}}</ref> London's [[Westminster Abbey]] also has a stone tablet memorial to President Roosevelt that was unveiled by [[Clement Attlee|Attlee]] and Churchill in 1948.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Franklin Delano Roosevelt|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/franklin-delano-roosevelt|website=Westminster Abbey|language=en|access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> [[Roosevelt Island|Welfare Island]] was renamed after Roosevelt in September 1973.<ref>{{Cite web|title=COMING TO LIGHT: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt|url=https://archweb.cooper.edu/exhibitions/kahn/history_01.html|access-date=September 25, 2021|website=archweb.cooper.edu}}</ref> |
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<gallery widths="200" heights="150"> |
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File:FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg|1948 statue of Roosevelt in [[Grosvenor Square]], London |
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File:FDR Memorial wall.jpg|Engraving of the [[Four Freedoms]] at the [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial]], dedicated in 1997 in Washington, D.C. |
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File:2017-D Roosevelt dime obverse transparent.png|The obverse of the [[Roosevelt dime]], which has been official U.S. currency since 1946 |
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</gallery> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt]] |
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* [[August Adolph Gennerich]] – his bodyguard |
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* [[List of Allied World War II conferences]] |
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* [[List of federal political sex scandals in the United States]] |
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* [[Sunshine Special (automobile)]] – Roosevelt's limousine |
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* [[Air Mail scandal]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{Notelist}} |
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==Citations== |
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{{Reflist|22em}} |
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==Works cited== |
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{{Further|Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{Citation| last = Alter| first = Jonathan| author-link = Jonathan Alter| year = 2006| title = The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope| publisher = Simon & Schuster| isbn = 978-0-7432-4600-2| type = popular history| url = https://archive.org/details/definingmomentfd00alte_0 }} |
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* {{cite book | last=Beito | first=David T. | author-link = David T. Beito| year=2023 | title = The New Deal's War on the Bill of Rights: The Untold Story of FDR's Concentration Camps, Censorship, and Mass Surveillance| edition=First | pages=4–7| location=Oakland | publisher=Independent Institute | isbn=978-1598133561}} |
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* {{Cite book| last = Black| first = Conrad| author-link = Conrad Black| year = 2005| orig-date = 2003| title = Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom|url={{GBurl|id=lYVCi70HaigC}}| isbn = 978-1-58648-282-4|publisher=PublicAffairs| type = interpretive detailed biography}}. |
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* {{cite book|last=Brands|first=H. W.|author-link=H. W. Brands|title=Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt|url={{GBurl|id=bmKMa_y3hh0C}}|year=2009|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0-307-27794-7}} |
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* {{Citation| last1 = Breitman| first1 = Richard| first2 = Allan J| last2 = Lichtman| author2-link = Allan J. Lichtman| year = 2013| title = FDR and the Jews| publisher = Harvard University Press|isbn =978-0-674-05026-6|oclc=812248674}}, |
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* {{cite book|last=Brinkley|first=Douglas|title=Rightful Heritage: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Land of America|url=https://archive.org/details/rightfulheritage0000brin|url-access=registration|year=2016|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-208923-6}} |
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* {{cite book|last= Burns|first= James MacGregor|year= 1956|title= Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox|publisher= Easton Press|isbn= 978-0-15-678870-0|url= https://archive.org/details/rooseveltliont00jame }} |
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* {{cite book|last= Burns|first= James MacGregor|year= 1970|title= Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom|publisher= Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|isbn= 978-0-15-678870-0|author-mask= 3|hdl= 2027/heb.00626|url= https://archive.org/details/rooseveltliont00jame }} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=James E.|title=Party Systems and Realignments in the United States, 1868–2004|journal=Social Science History|year=2006|volume=30|issue=3|pages=359–86|doi=10.1215/01455532-2006-002|jstor=40267912}} |
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* {{Cite Power Broker}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Churchill|first=Winston|author-link=Winston Churchill|title=The Grand Alliance|year=1977|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn = 978-0-395-41057-8|title-link=The Second World War (book series) }} |
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* {{cite book|last=Dallek|first=Robert|author-link= Robert Dallek|title=Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945|publisher=Oxford University|year=1995|isbn= 978-0-19-509732-0}} [https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve00robe online free to borrow] |
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* {{cite book| last = Dallek| first=Robert| author-mask = 3| title = Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life| date = 2017| publisher = Viking| isbn = 978-0-69-818172-4 }} |
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* Dighe, Ranjit S. "Saving private capitalism: The US bank holiday of 1933." ''Essays in Economic & Business History'' 29 (2011) [http://www.ebhsoc.org/journal/index.php/journal/article/download/40/37 online] |
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* {{Citation| last1 = Doenecke| first1 = Justus D| last2 = Stoler| first2 = Mark A| year = 2005| title = Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-9415-0}} |
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* {{Citation| last = Freidel| first = Frank| author-link = Frank Freidel| year = 1952–1973| title = Franklin D. Roosevelt| volume = 4 volumes| publisher = Little, Brown and Co.| oclc = 459748221}} |
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** Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt The Apprenticeship'' (vol 1 1952) to 1918, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177661 online] |
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** Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt The Ordeal'' (1954), covers 1919 to 1928, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151791 online] |
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** Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt The Triumph'' (1956) covers 1929–32, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156788 online] |
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** Frank Freidel, ''Franklin D. Roosevelt Launching the New Deal'' (1973). |
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* {{cite book|last=Fried|first=Albert|title=FDR and His Enemies: A History|url={{GBurl|id=2_UACwAAQBAJ|p=120}}|year=2001|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-1-250-10659-9|pages=120–23}} |
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* {{cite book| last1=Goldman| first1=Armond S.| last2=Goldman| first2=Daniel A.| year=2017| title=Prisoners of Time: The Misdiagnosis of FDR's 1921 Illness| publisher=EHDP Press| isbn=978-1-939-82403-5 }} |
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* {{Cite book| last= Goodwin| first= Doris Kearns| author-link= Doris Kearns Goodwin| year= 1995| publisher= Simon & Schuster| title= No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II| isbn= 978-0-684-80448-4| url= https://archive.org/details/noordinarytimef000good}} |
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* {{Cite book| last = Gunther| first = John|year=1950| url = https://archive.org/details/rooseveltinretro00gunt| title=Roosevelt in Retrospect| publisher=Harper & Brothers}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Hawley|first=Ellis| year=1995| title= The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly| publisher = Fordham University Press| isbn= 978-0-8232-1609-3}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Herman|first=Arthur|title=Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II|url={{GBurl|id=p3-H8rexHIoC|pg=PP1}}|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-679-60463-1}} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Herring|first1=George C.|title=From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507822-0|url=https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr}} |
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* {{cite book| last = Jordan| first = David M| year = 2011| title = FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944| publisher = Indiana University Press| isbn = 978-0-253-35683-3| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/fdrdeweyelection0000jord }}. |
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* {{cite book| last = Kennedy| first = David M| author-link = David M. Kennedy (historian)| year = 1999| title = Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-503834-7| type = wide-ranging survey of national affairs by leading scholar; Pulitzer Prize| title-link = Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 }}. |
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* {{Cite book| author-link = Joseph P. Lash| last = Lash| first = Joseph P| year = 1971| title = [[Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship, Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers]]| isbn = 978-0-393-07459-8| publisher=W.W. Norton & Company }} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Leuchtenburg|first1=William|title=The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|url={{GBurl|id=inLNCgAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-0-19-517616-2}} |
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* {{cite book|last= Leuchtenburg|first= William E.|author-link= William E. Leuchtenburg|year= 1963|title= Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940|publisher= Harpers|url= https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve00leuc|isbn= 978-0-06-133025-4}} |
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* {{cite book|last1=McJimsey|first1=George|title=The Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt|date=2000|publisher=University Press of Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1012-9|url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran00mcji}} [https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran00mcji online free to borrow] |
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* {{Citation| author-link = Ted Morgan (writer)| last = Morgan| first = Ted| year = 1985| title = FDR: A Biography| publisher = Simon & Schuster| isbn = 978-0-671-45495-1| type = popular biography| url = https://archive.org/details/fdrbiography00morg }}. |
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* {{cite book|last=Norton| first=Mary Beth|title=A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Since 1865|url={{GBurl|id=129rne8WpyoC|p=670}}|year=2009|publisher=Cengage|isbn=978-0-547-17560-7}} |
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* {{Citation| last = Robinson| first = Greg| year = 2001| title = By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans|isbn=978-1-5226-7771-0 }} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Roosevelt|first1= Franklin|last2=Roosevelt|first2=Elliott|date= 1970|title= F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928–1945|volume=1|url= {{GBurl|id=MpkOAQAAMAAJ|q=taconic commission roosevelt tender you my resignation}}|publisher=Duell, Sloan, and Pearce|ref={{sfnRef|F. Roosevelt, E. Roosevelt}}}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Rowley|first=Hazel|author-link=Hazel Rowley|year=2010|title=Franklin and Eleanor: An Extraordinary Marriage|publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux|isbn=978-0-374-15857-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/franklineleanore0000rowl }} |
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* {{cite book|last= Sainsbury|first= Keith|title= Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make|publisher= New York University Press|year= 1994|isbn= 978-0-8147-7991-0|url= https://archive.org/details/churchillrooseve0000sain }} |
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* {{cite book|last=Savage|first=Sean J.|title=Roosevelt, the Party Leader, 1932–1945|url={{GBurl|id=J7QlafgkrnUC|p=160}}|year=1991|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-3079-8 }} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Schweikart|first1=Larry|last2=Allen|first2=Michael|title=A Patriot's History of the United States: From Columbus's Great Discovery to the War on Terror|url={{GBurl|id=igOXnmTZ_wIC|pg=PP1}}|date=2004|publisher=Penguin Group US|isbn=978-1-101-21778-8}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Jean Edward|author-link=Jean Edward Smith|publisher=Random House|title=FDR|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4000-6121-1|url=https://archive.org/details/fdr00smit }} |
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* {{cite journal|first = Bernard|last = Sternsher|title = The Emergence of the New Deal Party System: A Problem in Historical Analysis of Voter Behavior|journal = [[Journal of Interdisciplinary History]]|volume = 6|number = 1|date=Summer 1975|pages = 127–49|jstor=202828|doi=10.2307/202828}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Tobin|first=James|title=The Man He Became: How FDR Defied Polio to Win the Presidency|url=https://archive.org/details/manhebecamehowfd0000tobi|url-access=registration|year=2013|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-9867-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhebecamehowfd0000tobi/page/4 4]–7}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Tully|first=Grace|author-link= Grace Tully| year= 2005| title= Franklin Delano Roosevelt, My Boss|publisher=Kessinger Publishing| isbn= 978-1-4179-8926-3}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Underwood|first=Jeffery S.|title=The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1941|url={{GBurl|id=7BOe6NR-9BsC|p=11}}|year=1991|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-0-89096-388-3}} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Ward|first1=Geoffrey C.|author-link1=Geoffrey C. Ward|last2=Burns|first2=Ken|author-link2=Ken Burns|title=The Roosevelts: An Intimate History|url={{GBurl|id=V73CAwAAQBAJ|pg=PP1}}|year=2014|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-385-35306-9}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Winkler|first= Allan M.| year=2006| title= Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Making of Modern America|publisher=Longman| isbn= 978-0-321-41285-0}} |
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* {{Citation| author-link = David Wyman| last = Wyman| first = David S| year = 1984| title = The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945| publisher = Pantheon Books|isbn=978-0-394-42813-0| title-link = The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945 }}. |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Sister project links|wikt=Roosevelt|commons=Franklin Delano Roosevelt|b=no|n=no|s=Author:Franklin Delano Roosevelt|v=no|d=Q8007}}{{Library resources box|about=yes|by=yes}} |
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* [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum] |
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* [http://www.nps.gov/frde/ Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial], Washington, DC |
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* [http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#fdroosevelt Full text and audio of a number of Roosevelt's speeches] – [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] |
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* {{New York Times topic|new_id=person/franklin-delano-roosevelt|name=Franklin Delano Roosevelt}} |
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* {{IMDb name|id=0740483|name=Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/fdroosevelt/index.html Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A Resource Guide] from the [[Library of Congress]] |
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* {{C-SPAN|5157}} |
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** [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151628-1/life-portrait-franklin-d-roosevelt "Life Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', October 11, 1999 |
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* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/fdr/ ''The Presidents: FDR''] – an ''[[American Experience]]'' documentary |
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* [https://archive.org/details/FDRSelectionsWritings ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Selections from His Writings''] |
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* {{Gutenberg author| id=67| name=Franklin Delano Roosevelt}} |
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* {{Librivox author|id=11299}} |
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* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Franklin Delano Roosevelt}} |
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{{Franklin D. Roosevelt}} |
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic nominee]] for President of the United States|years=[[1932 United States presidential election|1932]], [[1936 United States presidential election|1936]], [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]], [[1944 United States presidential election|1944]]}} |
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of covers of Time magazine (1940s)|Cover of ''Time'']]|years=November 29, 1943}} |
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|title= Other articles related to Franklin D. Roosevelt |
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{{US Presidents}} |
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{{United States presidential election, 1932}} |
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{{New Deal}} |
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{{Eleanor Roosevelt}} |
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نسخة دلوقتى 18:40، 11 يناير 2024
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